JBC PeproTech; Our Business is Cytokines!

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
 QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     


This Article
Right arrow Full Text
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Kon, J.
Right arrow Articles by Okajima, F.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Kon, J.
Right arrow Articles by Okajima, F.

J Biol Chem, Vol. 274, Issue 34, 23940-23947, August 20, 1999

Comparison of Intrinsic Activities of the Putative Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor Subtypes to Regulate Several Signaling Pathways in Their cDNA-transfected Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells

Junko KonDagger , Koichi SatoDagger , Tomoko Watanabe§, Hideaki TomuraDagger , Atsushi KuwabaraDagger , Takao KimuraDagger , Ken-ichi TamamaDagger , Tamotsu IshizukaDagger , Naoya MurataDagger , Tsugiyasu Kanda, Isao Kobayashi, Hideo Ohta§, Michio Uiparallel , and Fumikazu OkajimaDagger

From the Dagger  Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi 371-8512, § Pharmaceutical Research Laboratory, Kirin Brewery Co., LTD., 3 Miyahara-cho Takasaki 370-12,  Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Gunma University, Maebashi 371-8511, and the parallel  Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Honkomagome 3-18-22, Tokyo, Japan

We examined the actions of sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) on signaling pathways in Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with putative S1P receptor subtypes, i.e. Edg-1, AGR16/H218 (Edg-5), and Edg-3. Among these receptor-transfected cells, there was no significant difference in the expressing numbers of the S1P receptors and their affinities to S1P, which were estimated by [3H]S1P binding to the cells. In vector-transfected cells, S1P slightly increased cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in association with inositol phosphate production, reflecting phospholipase C activation; the S1P-induced actions were markedly enhanced in the Edg-3-transfected cells and moderately so in the AGR16-transfected cells. In comparison with vector-transfected cells, the S1P-induced [Ca2+]i increase was also slightly enhanced in the Edg-1-transfected cells. In all cases, the inositol phosphate and Ca2+ responses to S1P were partially inhibited by pertussis toxin (PTX). S1P also significantly increased cAMP content in a PTX-insensitive manner in all the transfected cells; the rank order of their intrinsic activity of S1P receptor subtypes was AGR16 > Edg-3 > Edg-1. In the presence of forskolin, however, S1P significantly inhibited cAMP accumulation at a lower concentration (1-100 nM) of S1P in a manner sensitive to PTX in the Edg-1-transfected cells but not in either the Edg-3 or AGR16-transfected cells. As for cell migration activity evaluated by cell number across the filter of blind Boyden chamber, Edg-1 and Edg-3 were equally potent, but AGR16 was ineffective. Thus, S1P receptors may couple to both PTX-sensitive and -insensitive G-proteins, resulting in the selective regulation of the phospholipase C-Ca2+ system, adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system, and cell migration activity, according to the receptor subtype.


Copyright © 1999 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
C. K. Means, S. Miyamoto, J. Chun, and J. H. Brown
S1P1 Receptor Localization Confers Selectivity for Gi-mediated cAMP and Contractile Responses
J. Biol. Chem., May 2, 2008; 283(18): 11954 - 11963.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
I. Gorshkova, D. He, E. Berdyshev, P. Usatuyk, M. Burns, S. Kalari, Y. Zhao, S. Pendyala, J. G. N. Garcia, N. J. Pyne, et al.
Protein Kinase C-{epsilon} Regulates Sphingosine 1-Phosphate-mediated Migration of Human Lung Endothelial Cells through Activation of Phospholipase D2, Protein Kinase C-{zeta}, and Rac1
J. Biol. Chem., April 25, 2008; 283(17): 11794 - 11806.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.Home page
A. Damirin, H. Tomura, M. Komachi, J.-P. Liu, C. Mogi, M. Tobo, J.-Q. Wang, T. Kimura, A. Kuwabara, Y. Yamazaki, et al.
Role of lipoprotein-associated lysophospholipids in migratory activity of coronary artery smooth muscle cells
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, May 1, 2007; 292(5): H2513 - H2522.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
L. I. Jiang, J. Collins, R. Davis, K.-M. Lin, D. DeCamp, T. Roach, R. Hsueh, R. A. Rebres, E. M. Ross, R. Taussig, et al.
Use of a cAMP BRET Sensor to Characterize a Novel Regulation of cAMP by the Sphingosine 1-Phosphate/G13 Pathway
J. Biol. Chem., April 6, 2007; 282(14): 10576 - 10584.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
EndocrinologyHome page
D.-J. Jun, J.-H. Lee, B.-H. Choi, T.-K. Koh, D.-C. Ha, M.-W. Jeong, and K.-T. Kim
Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Modulates Both Lipolysis and Leptin Production in Differentiated Rat White Adipocytes
Endocrinology, December 1, 2006; 147(12): 5835 - 5844.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
S. von Otte, J. R. J. Paletta, S. Becker, S. Konig, M. Fobker, R. R. Greb, L. Kiesel, G. Assmann, K. Diedrich, and J.-R. Nofer
Follicular Fluid High Density Lipoprotein-associated Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Is a Novel Mediator of Ovarian Angiogenesis
J. Biol. Chem., March 3, 2006; 281(9): 5398 - 5405.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
EndocrinologyHome page
T. Ozbay, A. Rowan, A. Leon, P. Patel, and M. B. Sewer
Cyclic Adenosine 5'-Monophosphate-Dependent Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Biosynthesis Induces Human CYP17 Gene Transcription by Activating Cleavage of Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein 1
Endocrinology, March 1, 2006; 147(3): 1427 - 1437.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Mol. Pharmacol.Home page
K. S. Park, H.-Y. Lee, M.-K. Kim, E. H. Shin, S. H. Jo, S. D. Kim, D.-S. Im, and Y.-S. Bae
Lysophosphatidylserine Stimulates L2071 Mouse Fibroblast Chemotactic Migration via a Process Involving Pertussis Toxin-Sensitive Trimeric G-Proteins
Mol. Pharmacol., March 1, 2006; 69(3): 1066 - 1073.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Bio.Home page
M. Rahaman, R. W. Costello, K. E. Belmonte, S. S. Gendy, and M.-T. Walsh
Neutrophil Sphingosine 1-Phosphate and Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptors in Pneumonia
Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., February 1, 2006; 34(2): 233 - 241.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
H. Tomura, J.-Q. Wang, M. Komachi, A. Damirin, C. Mogi, M. Tobo, J. Kon, N. Misawa, K. Sato, and F. Okajima
Prostaglandin I2 Production and cAMP Accumulation in Response to Acidic Extracellular pH through OGR1 in Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells
J. Biol. Chem., October 14, 2005; 280(41): 34458 - 34464.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Pharmacol. Rev.Home page
A. A. Maghazachi
Insights into Seven and Single Transmembrane-Spanning Domain Receptors and Their Signaling Pathways in Human Natural Killer Cells
Pharmacol. Rev., September 1, 2005; 57(3): 339 - 357.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Mol. Pharmacol.Home page
A. Damirin, H. Tomura, M. Komachi, M. Tobo, K. Sato, C. Mogi, H. Nochi, K. Tamoto, and F. Okajima
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptors Mediate the Lipid-Induced cAMP Accumulation through Cyclooxygenase-2/Prostaglandin I2 Pathway in Human Coronary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells
Mol. Pharmacol., April 1, 2005; 67(4): 1177 - 1185.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
M. D. Davis, J. J. Clemens, T. L. Macdonald, and K. R. Lynch
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Analogs as Receptor Antagonists
J. Biol. Chem., March 18, 2005; 280(11): 9833 - 9841.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
K. M. Argraves, B. A. Wilkerson, W. S. Argraves, P. A. Fleming, L. M. Obeid, and C. J. Drake
Sphingosine-1-phosphate Signaling Promotes Critical Migratory Events in Vasculogenesis
J. Biol. Chem., November 26, 2004; 279(48): 50580 - 50590.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J.-Q. Wang, J. Kon, C. Mogi, M. Tobo, A. Damirin, K. Sato, M. Komachi, E. Malchinkhuu, N. Murata, T. Kimura, et al.
TDAG8 Is a Proton-sensing and Psychosine-sensitive G-protein-coupled Receptor
J. Biol. Chem., October 29, 2004; 279(44): 45626 - 45633.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Neurosci.Home page
U. Gurok, C. Steinhoff, B. Lipkowitz, H.-H. Ropers, C. Scharff, and U. A. Nuber
Gene Expression Changes in the Course of Neural Progenitor Cell Differentiation
J. Neurosci., June 30, 2004; 24(26): 5982 - 6002.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol.Home page
R.-J. Hung, I.-W. J. Hsu, J. L. Dreiling, M.-J. Lee, C. A. Williams, M. D. Oberst, R. B. Dickson, and C.-Y. Lin
Assembly of adherens junctions is required for sphingosine 1-phosphate-induced matriptase accumulation and activation at mammary epithelial cell-cell contacts
Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, May 1, 2004; 286(5): C1159 - C1169.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
N. Gong, H. Wei, S. H. Chowdhury, and S. Chatterjee
Lactosylceramide recruits PKC{alpha}/{epsilon} and phospholipase A2 to stimulate PECAM-1 expression in human monocytes and adhesion to endothelial cells
PNAS, April 27, 2004; 101(17): 6490 - 6495.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Lipid Res.Home page
D.-S. Im
Discovery of new G protein-coupled receptors for lipid mediators
J. Lipid Res., March 1, 2004; 45(3): 410 - 418.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
T. Yamada, K. Sato, M. Komachi, E. Malchinkhuu, M. Tobo, T. Kimura, A. Kuwabara, Y. Yanagita, T. Ikeya, Y. Tanahashi, et al.
Lysophosphatidic Acid (LPA) in Malignant Ascites Stimulates Motility of Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells through LPA1
J. Biol. Chem., February 20, 2004; 279(8): 6595 - 6605.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.Home page
M. Ishiwara, Y. Aoki, H. Takagaki, M. Ui, and F. Okajima
TA-270 [4-Hydroxy-1-methyl-3-octyloxy-7-sinapinoylamino-2(1H)-quinolinone], an Anti-Asthmatic Agent, Inhibits Leukotriene Production Induced by IgE Receptor Stimulation in RBL-2H3 Cells
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., November 1, 2003; 307(2): 583 - 588.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Mol. Pharmacol.Home page
H. Ohta, K. Sato, N. Murata, A. Damirin, E. Malchinkhuu, J. Kon, T. Kimura, M. Tobo, Y. Yamazaki, T. Watanabe, et al.
Ki16425, a Subtype-Selective Antagonist for EDG-Family Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptors
Mol. Pharmacol., October 1, 2003; 64(4): 994 - 1005.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
C. Waters, B. Sambi, K.-C. Kong, D. Thompson, S. M. Pitson, S. Pyne, and N. J. Pyne
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate and Platelet-derived Growth Factor (PDGF) Act via PDGFbeta Receptor-Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor Complexes in Airway Smooth Muscle Cells
J. Biol. Chem., February 14, 2003; 278(8): 6282 - 6290.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
I. Ishii, X. Ye, B. Friedman, S. Kawamura, J. J. A. Contos, M. A. Kingsbury, A. H. Yang, G. Zhang, J. H. Brown, and J. Chun
Marked Perinatal Lethality and Cellular Signaling Deficits in Mice Null for the Two Sphingosine 1-Phosphate (S1P) Receptors, S1P2/LPB2/EDG-5 and S1P3/LPB3/EDG-3
J. Biol. Chem., July 5, 2002; 277(28): 25152 - 25159.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
FASEB J.Home page
T. KOHNO, A. WADA, and Y. IGARASHI
N-Glycans of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor Edg-1 regulate ligand-induced receptor internalization
FASEB J, July 1, 2002; 16(9): 983 - 992.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
C. Benaud, M. Oberst, J. P. Hobson, S. Spiegel, R. B. Dickson, and C.-Y. Lin
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate, Present in Serum-derived Lipoproteins, Activates Matriptase
J. Biol. Chem., March 15, 2002; 277(12): 10539 - 10546.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
C. Proenza, D. Angoli, E. Agranovich, V. Macri, and E. A. Accili
Pacemaker Channels Produce an Instantaneous Current
J. Biol. Chem., February 8, 2002; 277(7): 5101 - 5109.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Mol. Cell. Biol.Home page
H. Okamoto, N. Takuwa, T. Yokomizo, N. Sugimoto, S. Sakurada, H. Shigematsu, and Y. Takuwa
Inhibitory Regulation of Rac Activation, Membrane Ruffling, and Cell Migration by the G Protein-Coupled Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptor EDG5 but Not EDG1 or EDG3
Mol. Cell. Biol., December 15, 2000; 20(24): 9247 - 9261.
[Abstract] [Full Text]


Home page
Mol. Pharmacol.Home page
H. M. Himmel, D. Meyer zu Heringdorf, E. Graf, D. Dobrev, A. Kortner, S. Schüler, K. H. Jakobs, and U. Ravens
Evidence for Edg-3 Receptor-Mediated Activation of IK.ACh by Sphingosine-1-Phosphate in Human Atrial Cardiomyocytes
Mol. Pharmacol., August 1, 2000; 58(2): 449 - 454.
[Abstract] [Full Text]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
D.-S. Im, C. E. Heise, N. Ancellin, B. F. O'Dowd, G.-j. Shei, R. P. Heavens, M. R. Rigby, T. Hla, S. Mandala, G. McAllister, et al.
Characterization of a Novel Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor, Edg-8
J. Biol. Chem., May 5, 2000; 275(19): 14281 - 14286.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.Home page
S. AN
Molecular Identification and Characterization of G Protein-Coupled Receptors for Lysophosphatidic Acid and Sphingosine 1-Phosphate
Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., April 1, 2000; 905(1): 25 - 33.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
S. An, Y. Zheng, and T. Bleu
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate-induced Cell Proliferation, Survival, and Related Signaling Events Mediated by G Protein-coupled Receptors Edg3 and Edg5
J. Biol. Chem., January 7, 2000; 275(1): 288 - 296.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Cell Biol.Home page
A. Olivera, T. Kohama, L. Edsall, V. Nava, O. Cuvillier, S. Poulton, and S. Spiegel
Sphingosine Kinase Expression Increases Intracellular Sphingosine-1-phosphate and Promotes Cell Growth and Survival
J. Cell Biol., November 1, 1999; 147(3): 545 - 558.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
R. L. Malek, R. E. Toman, L. C. Edsall, S. Wong, J. Chiu, C. A. Letterle, J. R. Van Brocklyn, S. Milstien, S. Spiegel, and N. H. Lee
Nrg-1 Belongs to the Endothelial Differentiation Gene Family of G Protein-coupled Sphingosine-1-phosphate Receptors
J. Biol. Chem., February 16, 2001; 276(8): 5692 - 5699.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J. Davaille, C. Gallois, A. Habib, L. Li, A. Mallat, J. Tao, T. Levade, and S. Lotersztajn
Antiproliferative Properties of Sphingosine 1-Phosphate in Human Hepatic Myofibroblasts. A CYCLOOXYGENASE-2 MEDIATED PATHWAY
J. Biol. Chem., October 27, 2000; 275(44): 34628 - 34633.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
F. Alderton, P. Darroch, B. Sambi, A. McKie, I. S. Ahmed, N. Pyne, and S. Pyne
G-protein-coupled Receptor Stimulation of the p42/p44 Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Pathway Is Attenuated by Lipid Phosphate Phosphatases 1, 1a, and 2 in Human Embryonic Kidney 293 Cells
J. Biol. Chem., April 13, 2001; 276(16): 13452 - 13460.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
K. W. Young, M. D. Bootman, D. R. Channing, P. Lipp, P. R. Maycox, J. Meakin, R. A. J. Challiss, and S. R. Nahorski
Lysophosphatidic Acid-induced Ca2+ Mobilization Requires Intracellular Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Production. POTENTIAL INVOLVEMENT OF ENDOGENOUS EDG-4 RECEPTORS
J. Biol. Chem., December 1, 2000; 275(49): 38532 - 38539.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J. Igarashi, S. G. Bernier, and T. Michel
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate and Activation of Endothelial Nitric-oxide Synthase. DIFFERENTIAL REGULATION OF Akt AND MAP KINASE PATHWAYS BY EDG AND BRADYKININ RECEPTORS IN VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
J. Biol. Chem., April 6, 2001; 276(15): 12420 - 12426.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J. H. Paik, S.-s. Chae, M.-J. Lee, S. Thangada, and T. Hla
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate-induced Endothelial Cell Migration Requires the Expression of EDG-1 and EDG-3 Receptors and Rho-dependent Activation of alpha vbeta 3- and beta 1-containing Integrins
J. Biol. Chem., April 6, 2001; 276(15): 11830 - 11837.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
M. Morales-Ruiz, M.-J. Lee, S. Zollner, J.-P. Gratton, R. Scotland, I. Shiojima, K. Walsh, T. Hla, and W. C. Sessa
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Activates Akt, Nitric Oxide Production, and Chemotaxis through a Gi Protein/Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase Pathway in Endothelial Cells
J. Biol. Chem., May 25, 2001; 276(22): 19672 - 19677.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
F. Alderton, S. Rakhit, K. C. Kong, T. Palmer, B. Sambi, S. Pyne, and N. J. Pyne
Tethering of the Platelet-derived Growth Factor beta Receptor to G-protein-coupled Receptors. A NOVEL PLATFORM FOR INTEGRATIVE SIGNALING BY THESE RECEPTOR CLASSES IN MAMMALIAN CELLS
J. Biol. Chem., July 20, 2001; 276(30): 28578 - 28585.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
T. Kimura, K. Sato, A. Kuwabara, H. Tomura, M. Ishiwara, I. Kobayashi, M. Ui, and F. Okajima
Sphingosine 1-Phosphate May Be a Major Component of Plasma Lipoproteins Responsible for the Cytoprotective Actions in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells
J. Biol. Chem., August 17, 2001; 276(34): 31780 - 31785.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
I. Ishii, B. Friedman, X. Ye, S. Kawamura, C. McGiffert, J. J. A. Contos, M. A. Kingsbury, G. Zhang, J. H. Brown, and J. Chun
Selective Loss of Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Signaling with No Obvious Phenotypic Abnormality in Mice Lacking Its G Protein-coupled Receptor, LPB3/EDG-3
J. Biol. Chem., August 31, 2001; 276(36): 33697 - 33704.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
J. Biol. Chem.Home page
Y. Banno, Y. Takuwa, Y. Akao, H. Okamoto, Y. Osawa, T. Naganawa, S. Nakashima, P.-G. Suh, and Y. Nozawa
Involvement of Phospholipase D in Sphingosine 1-Phosphate-induced Activation of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase and Akt in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells Overexpressing EDG3
J. Biol. Chem., September 14, 2001; 276(38): 35622 - 35628.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


Home page
Circ. Res.Home page
M. J. Kluk and T. Hla
Role of the Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor EDG-1 in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Migration
Circ. Res., September 14, 2001; 89(6): 496 - 502.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]




HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
 All ASBMB Journals   Molecular and Cellular Proteomics 
 Journal of Lipid Research   ASBMB Today 
Copyright © 1999 by the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.