Iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) ()are cytosolic RNA-binding proteins that regulate the post-transcriptional expression of genes that are involved in iron homeostasis(1, 2, 3, 4) . IRPs were formerly known as the iron-responsive element-binding protein (IRE-BP), the ferritin repressor protein (FRP), and the iron regulatory factor (IRF). IRPs bind with high affinity to RNA stem-loops known as iron-responsive elements (IREs). IREs are located in the 5`- untranslated regions of ferritin and erythroid -aminolevulinic acid synthase mRNAs where binding causes translational repression (5, 6, 7) . Five IREs are located in the 3`-untranslated region of transferrin receptor mRNA(8, 9) , and binding of the IRP stabilizes transferrin receptor mRNA(9, 10) .

Two distinct IRPs have been cloned and characterized in mammalian cells and have been designated as IRP1 and IRP2. IRP1 has been cloned from a variety of mammalian species(5, 11, 12) . IRP1 has a molecular mass of 98,000 Da and shares 30% amino acid identity with the 4Fe-4S enzyme, mitochondrial aconitase(13) . The 18 active site residues in mitochondrial aconitase, including the 3 cysteines that serve as ligands for the 4Fe-4S cluster are conserved in IRP1(13) . In addition, IRP1 is an active cytosolic aconitase(14, 15) . In iron-repleted cells, IRP1 exhibits aconitase activity and contains iron, but binds the IRE with low affinity. In contrast, in iron-depleted cells, IRP1 lacks aconitase activity and iron, but binds the IRE with high affinity. UV cross-linking studies have shown overlap between RNA binding and the aconitase active sites, indicating that RNA binding and aconitase activities are mutually exclusive(16, 17) . Recent data indicated that aconitase activity is not necessary for iron regulation of IRP1, since substitution of an alanine for an active site serine does not prevent assembly and disassembly of the 4Fe-4S cluster(18) .

IRP2 has been characterized in rat tissues by RNA band shift assays (19, 20, 21, 22) and has been purified from rat liver and rat hepatoma cells (20) . The partial amino acid sequence of rat IRP2 is similar to the predicted protein sequence encoded by a cDNA isolated from a human T cell library(11, 23) , suggesting that this is the rat version of the human protein. A second IRP has been characterized from mouse tissues by RNA band shift analysis(24) , which is presumed to be homologous to the rat and the human IRP2.

IRP2 contains similar biochemical properties to IRP1 in that it binds IREs with similar affinity (20, 24) and represses translation of IRE-containing mRNAs in vitro(20, 25) . IRP1 and IRP2 differ in two aspects: first, unlike IRP1, IRP2 does not exhibit aconitase activity, indicating that aconitase activity is not necessary for regulation by iron(20) , and second, that although iron results in a decrease in IRP1 and IRP2 RNA-binding activities, the amount of IRP1 remains constant(12, 26) , whereas the amount of IRP2 protein is substantially reduced (20, 27

These novel properties of IRP2 raised questions as to how intracellular iron regulates IRP2 RNA binding activity. To answer this question, we analyzed the regulation of IRP2 by iron in rat hepatoma cells and human HeLa cells. We found that the marked reduction in IRP2 RNA binding activity and protein levels in iron-treated cells is due to increased turnover of IRP2. IRP2 synthesis and IRP2 mRNAs levels are unaffected by iron treatment. The iron-mediated degradation of IRP2 requires protein synthesis, but not transcription, suggesting that the synthesis of a labile protein is required. We also demonstrate that the proteasome complex is required for iron-mediated degradation of IRP2. Regulation of IRP2 protein levels by iron occurs in a variety of cell types, indicating that iron-mediated degradation is a common pathway for regulating IRP2 RNA binding activity.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Materials

Cell Culture

Measurement of IRP2 Degradation Rates

Measurement of IRP2 Synthesis Rates

RNA Band Shift Assays and Immunoblot Analysis

For immunoblot analysis, 50 µg of protein from cell lysates was fractionated on 8% SDS-PAGE. The protein was transferred to nitrocellulose membranes, and the membranes were incubated with a chicken anti-IRP1 antibody generated against the entire IRP1 protein (20) or a rabbit anti-IRP2 antibody(20) . After 1 h, the membranes were washed and incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-chicken or goat anti-rabbit IgG for 1 h. The protein was visualized using the enhanced chemiluminescence Western blotting detection system (Amersham Corp.) according to the manufacturer.

Northern Blotting

RESULTS

Iron Reduces IRP2 Levels in Rat Hepatoma and in Human HeLa Cells

Figure 1: Effect of iron treatment on RNA binding activity and levels of IRP1 and IRP2 in rat hepatoma cells. A, FTO2B cells were grown in the presence (lanes 2-7) or the absence (lanes 1 and 8) of 50 µg/ml FAC for 1-24 h after which lysates were prepared as described under ``Experimental Procedures.'' C24, untreated cells harvested at 24 h. Equal amounts of protein (10 µg) were incubated with a P-labeled IRE RNA followed by electrophoresis of the RNA-protein complexes by a 5% native polyacrylamide gel. The positions of IRP1IRE and IRP2IRE complexes and free IRE RNA are indicated. B, equal amounts of protein (50 µg) from A were subjected to 8% SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblot analysis using anti-rat IRP1 or anti-IRP2 antisera. Molecular weight standards are indicated.

To determine if the iron-mediated decrease in IRP2 levels occurs in other cell types, we measured RNA binding activity and protein levels for IRP1 and IRP2 in human HeLa cells treated with FAC for 1-24 h (Fig. 2). Since human IRP1IRE and IRP2IRE complexes comigrate on native polyacrylamide gels, we carried out supershift assays using anti-IRP2 antisera in RNA band shift assays. We have previously demonstrated that anti-IRP2 antisera does not interfere with RNA binding and results in a supershifted IRP2IRE complex(20) . Treatment of cells with FAC caused RNA-binding activity of IRP1 and IRP2 to decrease 2- and 5-fold, respectively (Fig. 2, A and C). Immunoblot analysis indicated that the amount of IRP1 remained constant during iron treatment, whereas the amount of IRP2 decreased 5-fold (Fig. 2, B and C). We have observed reductions in the amount of IRP2 in mouse 3T3 fibroblasts and transformed human primary embryonal 293 kidney cells treated with FAC for the same time course (data not shown). These data indicated that the decrease in IRP1 and IRP2 RNA binding activities induced by iron are mediated by different cellular processes and occurs in a variety of cell types.

Figure 2: Effect of iron treatment on RNA binding activity and protein levels of IRP1 and IRP2 in human HeLa cells. A, HeLa cells were grown in the presence (lanes 2-7) or absence (lane 1) of 50 µg/ml FAC. Equal amounts of protein (10 µg) were incubated with (lanes 9-15) or without (lanes 1-8) anti-IRP2 antisera for 5 min followed by the addition of P-labeled IRE RNA. As a control, rabbit preimmune antisera was added to an extract from untreated cells (C/PI, lane 8). IRP2IRE complexes are indicated by an asterisk. B, equal amounts of protein (50 µg) from extracts in A were subjected to immunoblot analysis using anti-IRP1 or anti-IRP2 antisera. C, the data in A and B were quantified by densitometry and plotted using untreated control as 100%.

Iron Does Not Affect Amounts of the IRP2 6.4-kb mRNA

Figure 3: Effect of iron treatment on IRP2 mRNA levels in rat hepatoma cells. FTO2B cells were grown in the presence of 50 µg/ml FAC (Iron) for 1-24 h or 200 µM desferrioxamine (Df) for 16 h. Total RNA was isolated and analyzed on an 1% formaldehyde-agarose gel. C0 and C24, untreated cells harvested at 0 and 24 h, respectively. The RNA was transferred to a membrane and sequentially hybridized with a P-labeled IRP2 cDNA (A) or a P-labeled glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase cDNA (B) to control for gel loading. The size of the IRP2 transcripts are indicated by arrows. RNA molecular weight standards are from Life Technologies, Inc.

Iron Increases the Rate of IRP2 Degradation, but Has No Effect on the Rate of IRP2 Synthesis

Figure 4: Effect of iron on the rate of IRP2 degradation. A, FTO2B cells were pulse-labeled for 4 h with TranS-label and chased in medium containing an excess of unlabeled methionine in the absence (lanes 1-11) or the presence (lanes 12-18) of 50 µg/ml FAC for 0-8 h. IRP2 was immunoprecipitated using anti-IRP2 antisera (lanes 3-18). As a control, IRP2 was immunoprecipitated from extracts from untreated cells using preimmune rabbit serum (PI) (lanes 1 and 2). Labeled immunoprecipitated protein was analyzed by 8% SDS-PAGE. The positions of the molecular weight standards and IRP2 are indicated. B, the turnover data in A was quantified by densitometry, and the intensity of the IRP2 bands were plotted relative to the percent of radioactivity remaining after 0 h (lanes 3 and 4). These experiment were carried out three times, and one representative experiment is shown. Symbols: , no addition; , iron.

It was possible that in addition to decreasing the half-life of IRP2, iron could also reduce its rate of synthesis. Measurements of synthesis rates in the presence of iron could be misleading, since it would not only measure synthesis, but would also measure degradation of newly synthesized protein. To determine if synthesis of IRP2 was affected by iron, we treated cells with FAC for 2.5 h, then quantified the amount of methionine incorporated into IRP2 during a short 1-h time course. Our turnover data indicated that in 1 h after iron treatment approximately 30% of labeled pre-existing IRP2 is degraded. Labeled IRP2 was immunoprecipitated using anti-IRP2 antibodies at 10, 20, 40, and 60 min followed by fractionation of the immunocomplexes by SDS-PAGE (Fig. 5A) and quantification of the radioactivity in the IRP2 bands by densitometry (Fig. 5B). At time points between 10 and 40 min, the rate of IRP2 synthesis was not significantly different in iron-treated or control cells. After 1 h of labeling, the amount of labeled IRP2 in iron-treated cells decreased slightly compared with the amount of IRP2 in control cells. The decrease in IRP2 label at 1 h is presumably due to the increase in the degradation of newly synthesized protein. We conclude that the iron-mediated reduction in IRP2 levels is due to an increased rate of degradation without changes in the rate of IRP2 synthesis.

Figure 5: Effect of iron on the rate of IRP2 synthesis. A, FTO2B cells were grown in the presence (lanes 5-8) or the absence (lanes 1-4) of 50 µg/ml FAC for 2.5 h. The cells were incubated in methionine-free medium for 15 min with or without FAC. After 15 min, the cells were labeled with 100 µCi/ml TranS-label and were then harvested after 10, 20, 40, and 60 min. IRP2 was immunoprecipitated using anti-IRP2 antisera and analyzed by 8% SDS-PAGE. Molecular weight standards and IRP2 are indicated. PI, control 60-min lysate immunoprecipitated with preimmune serum. B, the synthesis data in A was quantified by densitometry and the integrated density of labeled IRP2 bands was plotted. These data represent the results from two experiments.

Protein Synthesis, but Not Transcription Is Required for the Increased Rate of Degradation of IRP2 by Iron

Figure 6: Effect of cycloheximide on the iron-mediated degradation of IRP2 by iron. FTO2B cells were grown in the presence (lanes 3-5) or absence (lanes 1 and 2) of 50 µg/ml FAC (Iron), 20 µg/ml cycloheximide (Cyx) (lanes 6-8), or FAC plus cycloheximide (Iron + Cyx) (lanes 9-11) for 0-4 h. A, equal amounts of protein (50 µg) were subjected to 8% SDS-PAGE for immunoblot analysis using anti-IRP2 antisera. Molecular weight standards and the positions of IRP2 and a nonspecific immunoreactive band (ns) are indicated. B, equal amount of protein (10 µg) from extracts in A was incubated with P-labeled IRE followed by electrophoresis of the RNA-protein by 5% native polyacrylamide gels. The positions of IRP1IRE and IRP2IRE complexes are indicated.

We also determined if transcription is required for the degradation of IRP2 induced by iron. FTO2B cells were treated with the transcription inhibitor, actinomycin D alone, or in the presence or absence of FAC for 0, 1, 2.5, and 4 h, and IRP1 and IRP2 RNA binding activities and IRP2 levels were measured (Fig. 7, A and B). Actinomycin D alone had no effect on IRP1 or IRP2 RNA binding activities (Fig. 7B) or IRP2 protein levels (Fig. 7A). When cells were treated with FAC and actinomycin D, IRP1 and IRP2 RNA binding activities and IRP2 levels decreased, but not to the levels observed with iron alone. These data indicated that the iron-mediated degradation of IRP2 requires protein synthesis, but to a lesser extent transcription, suggesting that the synthesis of a labile protein is required for IRP2 degradation.

Figure 7: Effect of actinomycin D on the iron-mediated degradation of IRP2. FTO2B cells were grown in the presence (lanes 5-7) or absence (lanes 1-4) of 50 µg/ml FAC (Iron), 10 µM actinomycin D (lanes 8-10), or FAC plus actinomycin D (Act D + Iron) (lanes 11-13) for 0-4 h. Immunoblot analysis (A) and RNA band shift assays (B) were carried out as described in the legend to Fig. 6.

A Proteasome Inhibitor Blocks the Iron-mediated Degradation of IRP2 in FTO2B Cells

Figure 8: Effect of a proteasome inhibitor on IRP2 iron-mediated degradation. A, FTO2B cells were pretreated with 100 µM MG-132 in 1.0% dimethyl sulfoxide (MeSO) for 1 h prior to the addition of 50 µg/ml FAC for 1-4 h (lanes 9-11). Cells were also treated with MG-132 for 1-5 h (lanes 2-5) or FAC in MeSO for 1-4 h (lanes 6-8). CO control, untreated cells harvested at 0 h. The top panel is an immunoblot using anti-IRP2 antisera, and the bottom panel is an RNA band shift assay. The positions of IRP1 and IRP2 are indicated.

Because MG-132 also inhibits calpains and lysosomal cysteine proteases, such as cathepsin B, ()we tested whether calpain II (N-acetyl-leucinyl-leucinyl-methional-H), a cysteine protease inhibitor, and the lysosomal inhibitors, ammonium chloride and chloroquine, prevented iron-mediated IRP2 degradation. Previous studies demonstrated that calpain II inhibitors have little effect on proteasome function(33) . Fig. 9A shows that the treatment of cells with calpain II inhibitor in the presence of FAC has no effect on IRP2 iron-mediated degradation. Ammonium chloride also did not inhibit IRP2 degradation by iron (Fig. 9B). We conclude from these studies that the proteasomes, and not the lysosomes, are required for iron-mediated degradation of IRP2.

Figure 9: Effect of calpain II and lysosomal inhibitors on IRP2 iron-mediated degradation. A, cells were pretreated with 100 µM calpain II inhibitor in 0.4% dimethylformamide for 1 h prior to the addition of 50 µg/ml FAC (lanes 6-8) or in FAC in DMF (lanes 2-4) for 1-4 h. CO control, untreated cells harvested at 0 h. B, cells were pretreated with 20 mM ammonium chloride (lanes 5-7) or 0.15 mM chloroquine (lanes 8-10) for 1 h prior to the addition of 50 µg/ml FAC for 1-4 h. Cells were also treated with FAC (lanes 2-4) for 1-4 h. The top panels of A and B are immunoblots using anti-IRP2 antisera, and the bottom panels are RNA band shift assays. The positions of IRP1 and IRP2 are indicated.

DISCUSSION

In this paper we report the differential regulation of IRP1 and IRP2 by iron in mammalian cells. IRP1 exhibits two functions in cells dependent on iron levels: IRP1 with an 4Fe-4S cluster functions as an cytosolic aconitase converting citrate into isocitrate when iron is abundant and as an RNA binding apoprotein regulating the translation and stabilization of IRE-containing mRNAs when iron is scarce(18, 34, 35, 36) . The switch between the 4Fe-4S form and the apoprotein forms occurs without changes in IRP1 levels(12, 26) . By contrast, IRP2 lacks aconitase activity and functions solely as an RNA binding protein(20) . Our results indicate that IRP2 is regulated by specific proteolysis induced by iron in a variety of cells types and that the proteasome is responsible for IRP2 degradation.

Our data suggest a mechanism for the iron-mediated degradation of IRP2. When intracellular iron is scarce, IRP2 binds IREs with high affinity. An increase in intracellular iron results in the induction of a labile protein that is required for IRP2 degradation. Although we do not know the identity and function of this protein, it is possible that it is a targeting protein that binds IRP2 via the 73-amino acid domain, marking it for degradation. Iron could also cause the assembly of an 4Fe-4S cluster in IRP2, similar to the cluster in IRP1. Rat IRP2 contains the 3 conserved cysteines that coordinate the 4Fe-4S cluster in IRP1(27, 29) . In addition, the presence of 4 cysteines and 1 histidine in the 73-amino acid insertion of IRP2 suggests that this region might also participate in iron binding(29) . Preliminary data suggests that in vitro reconstitution of IRP2 with iron results in loss in RNA binding activity. ()Thus, according to our model, cluster assembly woud lead to a conformational change in IRP2 and subsequent loss in RNA binding activity. IRP2 would then be recognized by the targeting protein and rapidly degraded by the proteasome. Finally, our data indicate that the decrease IRP2 RNA binding activity mediated by iron is also prevented when IRP2 proteolysis is blocked either by MG-132 or by cycloheximide. One possibility to explain these data is that the putative Fe-S cluster is unstable in IRP2 and is disassembled during extract purification, leading to the generation of an apoprotein containing RNA binding activity.

The 26 S proteasome contains subunits which are important in the degradation of ubiquitin-conjugated proteins(30, 31) . We have not detected higher molecular weight IRP2 complexes by gel electrophoresis, which might be suggestive of ubiquitination of IRP2. However, since ubiquitin-conjugated proteins are very labile, they are generally difficult to detect. The 26 S proteasome also degrades non-ubiquitinated proteins(31, 37) . The signals required for targeting non-ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome are poorly understood; however, it is possible that the putative targeting protein discussed above could mark IRP2 for degradation by the proteasome.

Although we cannot eliminate the possibility that MG-132 may affect other unknown proteases and enzymatic activities in cells, the utilization of these inhibitors both in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated the specificity and effectiveness of these compounds against the proteasome(33) . Our data suggested that MG-132 may increase cellular iron levels, perhaps by blocking the degradation of iron transporter proteins. Peptide-aldehyde inhibitors have been used to demonstrate the role of the proteasome in the generation of peptides presented on the major histocompatibility class I molecules (33) and in the proteolytic processing of the transcription factor NF-B1(32) .

The structural determinants required for IRP2 iron-mediated degradation are unknown. IRP2 does not contain PEST regions (sequences rich in proline, glutamine, serine, and threonine) which are commonly found in proteins that are rapidly degraded(38) . However, IRP2, the 73-amino acid insertion, contains a site that is susceptible to proteolysis during purification and results in the production of an 83,000-Da proteolytic polypeptide(20) . The cleavage site has the sequence SQ- IENTP and is not a known protease cleavage sequence. Whether proteolysis at this site represents a physiological mechanism for iron-mediated degradation or whether the 73-amino acid insertion is a determinant required for degradation remains to be determined.

The biological relevance of two IRPs in cells is unclear. Both IRP1 and IRP2 bind IREs with high affinity (20, 24, 27) and function as translational repressors of IRE-containing RNAs in vitro(20) . First, it is possible that IRP2 binds to a subset of IRE-containing mRNAs containing slightly different sequences. A recent study using in vitro synthesized IREs demonstrated that mouse IRP2 has a preference for specific IRE sequences, suggesting that IRP2 may bind to specific IRE-containing mRNAs in vivo(39) . Second, since IRP2 is present in the highest amounts in skeletal muscle and heart, this suggests that IRP2 may regulate muscle-specific mRNAs(29) . Third, IRP2 RNA binding activity is decreased in the livers of rats treated with chemicals to induce oxidative stress (22) and increased in regenerating rat livers(21) , suggesting that IRP2 is regulated under a variety of physiological states. It is unclear whether these effects are due to alterations in intracellular iron levels or to stimuli other than iron.

A recent study suggested that iron-mediated regulation of IRP2 degradation may be cell-specific(27) . A c-myc-tagged recombinant IRP2 expressed in HeLa cells treated with iron or hemin for 16 h resulted in a decrease in RNA binding activity, but no change in the amount of protein. Our experiments analyzing the iron-mediated regulation of endogenous IRP2 in HeLa cells treated with iron for up to 24 h showed a steady decrease in RNA binding activity and protein levels up to 6 h, after which RNA binding activity and protein levels gradually increased. The half-life of recombinant IRP2 expressed in RD-4 cells was greater than 24 h in desferrioxamine-treated cells and 6 h in iron-treated cells(27) . By contrast, our data indicated that the half-life of endogenous IRP2 in untreated FTO2B cells was 6 h and 1.5 h in iron-treated cells. The discrepancies between these studies may reflect differences in experimental design due to use of overexpressed protein or to different cell growth conditions.

The regulation of gene expression by specific proteolysis provides a way by which cells can change the concentration of specific proteins depending on the metabolic state of the cell. The iron-dependent regulation of IRP2 turnover may be similar to the mechanisms regulating the mammalian enzyme ornithine decarboxylase. Ornithine decarboxylase is the first enzyme in the polyamine biosynthesis pathway and is degraded when intracellular polyamine levels increase(40) . Polyamines induce antizyme, a protein which binds with high affinity to ornithine decarboxylase (41, 42) and targets ornithine decarboxylase for degradation by the proteasome(37) . Thus, it is possible that IRP2, like ornithine decarboxylase, may utilize other proteins that specify its degradation during changes in intracellular iron levels. The characterization of the other components responsible for IRP2 iron-mediated degradation will provide a clearer understanding of the mechanism by which IRP2 is targeted and degraded by the proteasome.

FOOTNOTES

*

This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant GM45201 (to E. A. L.) and by National Cancer Institute Grant CA4201 (to the Protein Core Facility of the Utah Cancer Center at the University of Utah). The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore by hereby marked ``advertisement'' in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

§

To whom all correspondence should be addressed: University of Utah, Bldg. 533, Rm. 4220, HMBG, Salt Lake City, UT 84112. Tel.: 801-585-5002; Fax: 801-585-3501.

()

The abbreviations used are: IRP1 and IRP2, iron regulatory proteins 1 and 2; IRE, iron-responsive element; FAC, ferric ammonium citrate; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; MG-132, carbobenzoxyl-leucinyl-leucinyl-leucinal-H.

()

F. L. Stassen, personal communication.

()

J. D. Phillips and E. A. Leibold, unpublished data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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