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J Biol Chem, Vol. 273, Issue 29, 18347-18352, July 17, 1998
From the Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of
Sydney, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney,
New South Wales 2065, Australia
Insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins
(IGFBPs) play an integral role in modifying insulin-like growth factor
actions in a wide variety of cell types. Recent evidence suggests that IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 also have effects on cell growth that are insulin-like growth factor-independent. In investigating possible mechanisms for this effect, the intracellular trafficking of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5, both of which contain sequences with the potential for
nuclear localization, was studied in T47D cells. Nuclear uptake of
fluorescently labeled IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 was observed in a proportion
of T47D cells that appeared to be rapidly dividing. IGFBP-1 and
IGFBP-2, which do not possess the putative domain for nuclear
translocation, were not transported to the nuclei of T47D cells. When
T47D cells were preincubated with excess unlabeled IGFBP-3, nuclear
localization of labeled IGFBP-3 or IGFBP-5 was not detected, indicating
that their nuclear translocation involves a common pathway. Inhibition
of receptor-mediated endocytosis did not affect nuclear uptake of
IGFBP-3, suggesting that it uses an alternative non-classical import
pathway for transport across the plasma membrane. In addition, a
variant form of IGFBP-3 with a mutation in the putative nuclear
localization sequence was unable to translocate to the nuclei of T47D
cells, suggesting that nuclear translocation of IGFBP-3 was dependent
on these carboxyl-terminal basic residues.
The insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I and
IGF-II)1 are potent mitogens,
which stimulate proliferation in many normal and malignant cell types
(1). They bind to specific receptors, designated the type I and II IGF
receptors (2), although the mitogenic effects of the IGFs are mediated
through the type I IGF receptor. The IGFs also have high affinity for a
family of six structurally related IGF-binding proteins, IGFBP-1 to
IGFBP-6, which are responsible for regulating the bioavailability
of the IGFs in the circulation (3). The IGFBPs also modulate the
activity of IGFs at the cellular level, either inhibiting or enhancing
IGF action (4), and in this context are believed to be important in
regulating IGF-dependent proliferation of many cancers
(5).
Several reports have described the growth inhibition of breast cancer
cells (6) and other cell types (7) by IGFBP-3, which appears
independent of activation of the type I IGF receptor. More recently,
overexpression of IGFBP-3 in fibroblasts with a targeted disruption of
the IGF-I receptor gene was shown to have an inhibitory effect on cell
growth (8). Transforming growth factor Although the precise mechanism of this growth regulation is unknown,
one plausible explanation is that IGFBP-3 is transported to the nucleus
where it directly or indirectly modulates gene transcription. The basic
carboxyl-terminal domain of IGFBP-3 contains a region (amino acids
215-232) with strong sequence homology to previously identified
bipartite nuclear localization signals (NLS) (14). In addition, this
basic region shares homology with the DNA-binding domains of several
transcription factors (15). Nuclear translocation of IGFBP-3 has
now been reported in a renal proximal tubule-like cell line (16), and
IGFBP-3 has also been detected in the nuclei of lung cancer cells (17)
and human keratinocytes (18). Based on sequence homology between the
basic carboxyl-terminal regions of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 (IGFBP-3, amino
acids 215-232; IGFBP-5, amino acids 201-218), IGFBP-5 also has the
potential to be targeted to the nuclei of cells and to interact
directly with DNA. The sequences in IGFBP-1, -2, -4, and -6 that
correspond to the putative NLS in IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 do not contain
this basic motif, nor is it represented in any other part of their sequences.
As part of our investigations into the mechanisms that regulate breast
cancer cell growth, we have studied the nuclear localization of IGFBP-3
and IGFBP-5 in the T47D cell line, an estrogen receptor-positive human
breast cancer cell line that is reported to express IGFBP-2, -4, and -5 (19). Here, we report the novel observation that IGFBP-5 is
translocated to the nucleus, confirming the prediction based on
sequence homology with IGFBP-3. In addition, we have examined two
aspects of the mechanism for nuclear transport of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5.
We demonstrate a shared and saturable pathway for their nuclear uptake
and show that IGFBP-3 does not enter the cell by receptor-mediated
endocytosis prior to its nuclear localization. Furthermore, we have
defined a sequence within the basic motif of IGFBP-3 that is
necessary for its nuclear translocation.
Materials--
Natural, glycosylated IGFBP-3 was isolated from
Cohn fraction IV of human plasma (20), IGFBP-1 was purified from human
amniotic fluid (21), and recombinant human IGFBP-2 was provided by
Sandoz, Basel, Switzerland. Recombinant human IGFBP-5 was the generous gift of J. Zapf, Zürich, Switzerland. Expression and purification of recombinant human IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-3[228KGRKR Fluorescent Labeling of IGFBPs--
The binding proteins were
labeled with the fluorophore Cy3 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), in 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, for 30 min at 22 °C.
Following quenching of the reaction with 125 mM Tris-HCl,
pH 7.0, bovine serum albumin was added to a final concentration of 10 g/liter. Labeled binding proteins were separated from free Cy3 dye by
size exclusion chromatography on a 1 × 50-cm column of Sephadex
G-100 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) in 50 mM sodium
phosphate buffer, pH 6.8, 0.5 M NaCl, and 1 g/liter bovine
serum albumin. The fractions were concentrated and desalted by
ultrafiltration through Microcon-10 microconcentrators (Amicon, Beverley, MA) and stored in aliquots at Immunoblot Analysis of IGFBPs--
Western immunoblotting of
labeled IGFBPs was performed as described previously (5). Briefly, 50 ng of protein from each column fraction together with molecular mass
standards (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) were separated on 12% SDS-PAGE
and transferred to nitrocellulose. The membranes were then incubated
with either IGFBP-1 or -2 antisera at a dilution of 1:2,000, IGFBP-3
antiserum at a dilution of 1:5,000, or IGFBP-5 antiserum at a dilution
of 1:1,000 for 16 h at 22 °C. Immunoblots were then washed
extensively before incubating with radioiodinated protein A for 2 h at 22 °C. The membranes were again washed and the labeled binding
proteins visualized after autoradiography.
Cell Culture and Fluorescent Studies--
T47D human breast
cancer cells (American Type Culture Collection, HTB 133) were
maintained in RPMI medium supplemented with 25 mM
NaHCO3, 2 mM glutamine, 10 µg/ml bovine
insulin, and 10% fetal calf serum (Cytosystems, New South Wales,
Australia). For fluorescent studies, T47D cells were cultured on glass
multiwell slides (Nunc Inc., Napierville, IL) treated with Cell-Tak
(Becton Dickinson, Bedford, MA). To examine the effect of monolayer
wounding, the cells were grown to confluence before the monolayer was
scored with a pointed instrument. For other studies, the cells were
grown to subconfluence before the medium was changed to serum-free RPMI medium supplemented with 20 mM HEPES, 2 mM
glutamine, 0.06 g/liter penicillin, 0.1 g/liter streptomycin, and 1 g/liter bovine serum albumin. Cells were then used directly or were
treated with inhibitors of endocytosis for 4 h at 37 °C.
Labeled binding proteins (0.5 µg/ml) were added and the cells
incubated for 60 min at 22 °C. To determine cell viability, 5 µM calcein AM (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) was added
(25) and after another 30 min of incubation the cells were washed and
fixed with Histochoice (Amresco, Solon, OH), mounted in an antifade
medium, and examined using fluorescent microscopy. Similar results were
obtained when the cells were incubated at 37 °C.
Antibody Binding Assay--
Cell surface binding of IGFBP-1, -2, -3, and -5 was performed as described previously for IGFBP-3 (9).
Briefly, T47D cells were grown to confluence in 96-well plates and the
cells made serum-free for 24 h. The confluent monolayer was
incubated with 0.5 µg/ml IGFBPs for 4 h at 37 °C. After
washing the monolayer, antiserum was added and the cells incubated for
16 h at 22 °C. IGFBP-1, -2, and -3 antisera were used at a
dilution of 1:5,000 and IGFBP-5 antiserum at a dilution of 1:1,000.
After washing the cells, radioiodinated protein A was added at 40,000 cpm/ml and the cells incubated for 2 h at 22 °C. The cells were
then washed and solubilized with 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate for
16 h at 22 °C and the lysates counted in a Statistical Analysis--
Data were analyzed by analysis of
variance followed by Fisher's protected least significant difference
test, using Statview 4.02 (Abacus Concepts, Inc., Berkeley, CA).
Nuclear Transport of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 in T47D Cells--
The
putative NLS in the carboxyl-terminal region of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 and
the corresponding sequences in IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-2 are shown in Table
I. The intracellular movement of these
binding proteins was studied by directly labeling them with the
fluorescent dye, Cy3. The size and integrity of the labeled binding
proteins were determined by Western immunoblotting following
size-exclusion chromatography. Fig. 1
shows unlabeled and labeled IGFBP-1 (lanes 1 and
2), IGFBP-2 (lanes 3 and 4), IGFBP-3
(lanes 5 and 6), and IGFBP-5 (lanes 7 and 8). Following labeling, all the binding proteins showed
a slight increase in molecular mass consistent with the addition of
multiple Cy3 molecules (766 Da). Importantly, there was no evidence of
oligomerization or proteolysis of the binding proteins.
Insulin-like Growth Factor-binding Protein (IGFBP)-3 and IGFBP-5
Share a Common Nuclear Transport Pathway in T47D Human Breast Carcinoma
Cells*
,
ABSTRACT
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
INTRODUCTION
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
(TGF) and retinoic acid,
which are known to inhibit cell growth and induce apoptosis in a
variety of normal and malignant cell types, also induce the expression
and secretion of IGFBP-3 (5, 9). Several reports have now shown that
the growth inhibitory effects of TGF and retinoic acid (10, 11) and
the TGF induction of apoptosis (12) are mediated, at least in part,
by IGFBP-3. There are fewer reports on IGF-independent action of
IGFBP-5. These include the stimulation of bone cell growth by IGFBP-5
in the absence of increased IGF-I binding to its receptor (13).
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
MDGEA] was as described previously (22). Antisera against IGFBP-1,
IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3 were prepared in this laboratory following
immunization of rabbits with purified antigens. Rabbit anti-human
IGFBP-5 antiserum was purchased from Upstate Biotechnology, Inc., Lake
Placid, NY. Protein A was purchased from Sigma. Chloroquine (Boehringer
Mannheim GmbH, Mannheim, Germany) was prepared as a 20 mM
stock solution in cell culture medium, colchicine and nocodazole
(Sigma) were prepared at 10 mM in Me2SO, and
monensin (Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA) was prepared at 1 mM in
95% EtOH.
80 °C. The concentrations of the IGFBP-1, -2, and -3 were determined by radioimmunoassay as
described previously (21, 23, 24). The concentration of IGFBP-5 was
determined semiquantitatively using SDS-PAGE and Western immunoblotting
by comparing the band intensity of known amounts of unlabeled IGFBP-5
with that of labeled IGFBP-5. Following labeling, the binding proteins
still bound IGFs with high affinity, although this was slightly reduced
compared with the unlabeled control (data not shown). Transferrin
(Sigma) was similarly labeled without the addition of bovine serum
albumin, and the protein concentration was determined using the
Bradford assay.
-counter.
RESULTS
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Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
Comparison of the carboxyl-terminal basic residues of human IGFBP-3
and IGFBP-5 and the corresponding sequence in human IGFBP-1 and
IGFBP-2
View larger version (130K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 1.
Western immunoblot of labeled binding
proteins. The unlabeled and Cy3-labeled binding proteins were
separated on 12% SDS-PAGE and subjected to Western immunoblotting as
described under "Experimental Procedures." The positions of
molecular mass markers, run in adjacent lanes, are indicated in
kilodaltons. Comparison between unlabeled and labeled IGFBP-1
(lanes 1 and 2), IGFBP-2 (lanes 3 and
4), IGFBP-3 (lanes 5 and 6), and
IGFBP-5 (lanes 7 and 8) showed that there was an
increase in molecular mass for each labeled IGFBP compared with its
unlabeled counterpart and that the labeling procedure had not
compromised the integrity of the binding proteins.
|
Cell Surface Association of the Binding Proteins-- As binding to the plasma membrane may be the first step in nuclear localization of exogenous IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5, we have examined the potential for cell surface association by the labeled binding proteins. Fig. 3 shows that IGFBP-1 (B), IGFBP-2 (C), IGFBP-3 (D) and IGFBP-5 (E) all displayed significant cell surface labeling on the T47D cell monolayer compared with control cells incubated with free dye only (A). In the case of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5, the images have been selected from areas where nuclear localization was absent to allow for the longer exposures necessary to illustrate cell surface labeling as opposed to nuclear labeling.
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IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 Share a Common Nuclear Transport Pathway-- To determine whether nuclear localization of IGFBP-3 (Fig. 5A) and IGFBP-5 (Fig. 5C) was specific and saturable, we competed the labeled binding proteins with a 10-fold excess (5 µg/ml) of unlabeled plasma IGFBP-3. Under these conditions, nuclear localization of Cy3-labeled IGFBP-3 (Fig. 5B) and IGFBP-5 (Fig. 5D) was not detected and the labeling was equivalent to that seen when free Cy3 dye (Fig. 3A) was added to cells. Insufficient IGFBP-5 was available to perform a similar study with excess IGFBP-5. These results suggest that nuclear localization of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 in T47D cells is specific and that they share at least some part of their nuclear transport pathway.
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Nuclear Uptake of Exogenously Added IGFBP-3 Does Not Require Receptor-mediated Endocytosis-- Recent evidence suggests that, in cells actively transporting IGF-I to the nucleus, this growth factor crosses the plasma membrane by a pathway that is independent of receptor-mediated endocytosis via clathrin-coated pits (16). To determine whether transport of IGFBP-3 across the plasma membrane utilizes the endocytotic pathway, we treated T47D cells with inhibitors of endocytosis and examined their effect on nuclear uptake of Cy3-labeled IGFBP-3 (Table II). Neither the lysosomotropic agents, chloroquine and monensin (26), nor the microtubule disrupting agents, colchicine and nocodazole (27), prevented nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3 in T47D cells. These results suggest that, like IGF-I, IGFBP-3 internalizes by a mechanism other than classical endocytosis. In parallel with these studies, we examined the internalization of a control protein, Cy3-labeled transferrin, to ensure that all endocytosis was blocked. Colchicine and nocodazole prevented the accumulation of Cy3-transferrin within the perinuclear region, and treatment with chloroquine and monensin led to the appearance of morphological changes consistent with an increase in the rate of fusion of endocytic vesicles caused by an increase in endosomal pH (data not shown).
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Mutation in the Basic Region of IGFBP-3 Prevents Its Nuclear
Uptake--
To examine the sequences involved in nuclear transport of
IGFBP-3, we have expressed the wild-type and a mutant form of human IGFBP-3 in Chinese hamster ovary cells. The mutation,
228KGRKR MDGEA, is located in the carboxyl-terminal
region of the putative bipartite NLS (Table I). This mutant was derived
by exchanging part of the putative NLS of IGFBP-3 for the corresponding sequence in IGFBP-1, a binding protein that is not transported to the
nucleus (Fig. 2A). Following fluorescent labeling of the wild-type and mutant form of IGFBP-3, their uptake was studied in T47D
cells. As shown for plasma IGFBP-3 (Fig. 2C), recombinant wild-type IGFBP-3 was also found localized to the nucleus (Fig. 7A). In contrast, nuclear
uptake of the basic mutant by T47D cells was absent (Fig.
7B). We conclude that sequences within the basic region of
IGFBP-3 are necessary for the nuclear translocation of exogenous
IGFBP-3 in T47D cells.
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The observation that IGFBP-3 can have effects on cell growth that are independent of the activation of the type I IGF receptor has focused attention on the possible mechanism(s) for this effect. This has led to the recent identification of nuclear IGFBP-3 in several cell types (16-18). Based on a common putative nuclear localization signal in the carboxyl-terminal domains of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5, we hypothesized that IGFBP-5 would also translocate to cell nuclei. The present study confirms this hypothesis by describing the nuclear localization of both IGFBP-3 and -5 in the T47D human breast cancer cell line. We have shown previously that IGF-I is capable of releasing a proportion of bound IGFBP-3 from the plasma membrane of neonatal fibroblasts (9), an effect that has the potential to prevent internalization and nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3. However, nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3 was unaffected by the presence of IGF-I. In a recent study, where IGFBP-3 was shown to transport IGF-I to the nucleus, Cy3-labeled IGF-I did not prevent nuclear uptake of fluorescently labeled IGFBP-3 (16). In contrast, the two proteins were co-localized to the same subset of cells. This would suggest that different mechanisms operate at the cell surface depending on whether the IGFBP-3 is destined for nuclear uptake or not.
Within the family of IGFBPs, IGFBP-3 and -5 are closely related both
structurally and functionally. The basic motif within their
carboxyl-terminal regions confers binding to the cell surface/ECM (22,
28, 29), and we have now shown that it is required for the nuclear
uptake of IGFBP-3, and potentially that of IGFBP-5. In addition, we
have recently demonstrated that, like IGFBP-3, IGFBP-5 participates in
ternary complex formation with the IGFs and the acid-labile subunit
(30), a function we previously reported to involve residues 228-232 of
the basic carboxyl-terminal domain of IGFBP-3 (22). IGFBP-1 and -2, which do not contain sequences with homology to known NLS, did not
localize to the nucleus. However, labeling at the edge of the monolayer
was observed for both Cy3:IGFBP-1 and -2 and we also found evidence
for cell surface/ECM association using an antibody binding assay. These
findings are consistent with the known interaction between the RGD
motif in IGFBP-1 (31) and 
v1 integrin
known to be expressed on T47D cells (32). Although IGFBP-2 also
contains an RGD motif, its association with integrins has not been
documented. Recently, association between IGFBP-2 and cell surface
proteoglycans in the rat olfactory bulb has been reported (33).
The pathway(s) taken by IGFBP-3 and -5 to effect their nuclear uptake are currently unknown. Some secretory proteins destined for nuclear import are diverted away from the secretory pathway (34, 35), but most are initially secreted from the cell prior to internalization and transport to the nucleus (36, 37). The nuclear isoform of IGFBP-3 isolated from human lung cancer cells was reported to be of similar size to the glycosylated form secreted from the cell (17), suggesting that IGFBP-3 was released through the Golgi system prior to uptake and nuclear localization. Therefore, binding to the cell surface and transport across the plasma membrane are likely to be the first steps in nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3. Although the cell surface association proteins for IGFBP-3 and -5 on T47D cells are unknown, there is considerable evidence that IGFBP-3 and -5 interact with the cell surface or ECM in a variety of cell types (6, 9, 29, 38-40). To determine whether IGFBP-3 and -5 shared a common internalization and/or nuclear uptake pathway, T47D cells were preincubated with an excess of unlabeled IGFBP-3. This prevented nuclear transport of both Cy3:IGFBP-3 and -5, either as a result of limitation in cell surface binding sites or by saturation of the soluble cytoplasmic importins (41). In an antibody binding assay, we observed partial displacement of cell surface-bound exogenously added IGFBP-5 in the presence of excess IGFBP-3. From this we conclude that the availability of cell surface binding sites is unlikely to be the limiting factor in nuclear uptake of IGFBP-5 (and presumably also IGFBP-3) but rather that saturation is occurring during cytosolic transport.
Targeting of extracellular proteins to the nucleus requires a means of cytoplasmic access. During the degradation and recycling processes, which occur during receptor-mediated endocytosis, some of the internalized material may escape into the cytoplasm where it becomes biologically active (42). In the present study, nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3 was unaffected in T47D cells treated with the inhibitors of endocytosis and receptor recycling, chloroquine and monensin (26). In addition, when microtubules, which have a role in endocytosis by participating in intracellular movement of endocytotic vesicles (26, 27), were disrupted by treatment with colchicine and nocodazole, there was no effect on nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3. Furthermore, in cells which displayed nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3 and -5, we observed generalized cytoplasmic labeling consistent with an unconstrained distribution of the binding proteins within the cytoplasm. For these reasons, we suggest that the cellular uptake of IGFBP-3, like IGF-I, is independent of receptor-mediated endocytosis. Other potential mechanisms available to polypeptides for transport across the plasma membrane include the use of specialized structures for internalization such as caveolae (43) or by direct transport across the plasma membrane by nonclassical import mechanism(s) (44).
There is now considerable evidence that many hormones and growth factors are capable of modulating cellular responses both indirectly by activation of classical signal transduction pathways and directly by nuclear targeting. These include insulin (45), platelet-derived growth factor (46), and fibroblast growth factor (47). This duality of function may now encompass not only ligands, but also serum binding proteins such as IGFBP-3 and -5 and the androgen-binding protein/sex hormone-binding globulin (48), which also localizes to the nucleus. These binding proteins may not only regulate the bioavailability of their respective hormone or growth factor in the extracellular environment, but may also participate in intracellular events. The intracellular actions of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 may be analogous to that observed for thyroid/steroid hormone receptors (49). These receptors interact with high affinity DNA-binding sites, in a ligand-dependent fashion, to regulate gene expression. Given the ability of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 to bind the ligands IGF-I and IGF-II, together with a demonstrated capacity for nuclear uptake and a potential for specific DNA interactions, these binding proteins may represent another class of ligand-regulated transcription factors.
The functional significance of two separate pathways for the regulation of gene expression by a number of polypeptide hormones is unclear. However, the choice between activation of transmembrane receptors and signal transduction pathways as opposed to internalization and direct nuclear effects appears, in some instances, to be related to progression through the cell cycle (50, 51). Although there is no evidence that IGFBP-3 or -5 activates classical cell signaling pathways, they do have an indirect effect on these pathways by their ability to sequester IGFs and prevent their interaction with the type I IGF receptor. It is therefore conceivable that the choice between indirect and direct effects of IGFBP-3 and -5 may be related to cell cycle factors. We have observed that IGFBP-3 and -5 are translocated to the nuclei of T47D cells at positions within the monolayer where the cells are likely to be actively dividing. In addition, we frequently observe the labeling of nuclei of daughter cells, suggesting that nuclear uptake of these binding proteins may be related to cell cycle events. These observation have also been reported for IGFBP-3 in a renal proximal tubule-like cell line (16) and human keratinocytes (18).
Because the movement of IGFBP-3 from the extracellular microenvironment to an intracellular position could modulate its role in normal and tumor cell growth, we have examined the sequences in IGFBP-3 that are necessary for its nuclear localization. We found that mutation of basic residues within the putative NLS of IGFBP-3 prevented its nuclear uptake. The mutated basic residues are common to IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5, but no other IGFBP, emphasizing the likelihood of a common mechanism accounting for the nuclear uptake of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5. The basic region mutant of IGFBP-3 lacks the cell surface binding determinant (22) and potentially lacks the ability to bind importin subunits (41). As cell surface binding may be a prerequisite for nuclear transport, the use of a cell-free system may help to distinguish between cell surface binding and nuclear translocation events.
Although the function of intracellular IGFBP-3 is unknown, a general
theme that is emerging is that IGFBP-3 mediates, at least in part, the
inhibition of cell growth induced by TGF (10), retinoic acid (11),
and p53 (52), which may involve an increase in apoptosis (12). These
effects are potentially related to the actions of IGFBP-3 that are
independent of the type I IGF receptor. In the nucleus, IGFBP-3 may
bind directly to DNA and act as a transcription factor regulating the
expression of apoptotic or other genes. Alternatively, the action of
nuclear IGFBP-3 may be indirect, regulating gene expression through
interaction with other nuclear proteins. Thus, despite current
uncertainties regarding the role of nuclear IGFBP-3, understanding the
events that lead to its nuclear localization may provide insight into
its role as a cancer cell growth inhibitor.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Drs. Gilbert-André Keller and Paul Fielder (South San Francisco, CA) for initial discussions. We thank Prof. Jürgen Zapf (Zürich, Switzerland) for providing the recombinant human IGFBP-5 used in this study and Sandoz (Basel, Switzerland) for providing the recombinant human IGFBP-2. We also thank Usha Ganeshprasad for assistance in the purification of recombinant IGFBP-3 and the Leo & Jenny Leukaemia and Cancer Foundation for HPLC equipment.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by the Sydney University Medical Foundation and National Health and Medical Research Council Grant 940447.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Kolling Inst. of
Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, New South
Wales 2065, Australia. Tel.: 61-2-9926-8486; Fax: 61-2-9926-8484; E-mail: lyns{at}med.usyd.edu.au.
1
The abbreviations used are: IGF, insulin-like
growth factor; IGFBP, IGF-binding protein; TGF, transforming growth
factor ; NLS, nuclear localization signal; ECM, extracellular
matrix; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
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V. Hwa, Y. Oh, and R. G. Rosenfeld The Insulin-Like Growth Factor-Binding Protein (IGFBP) Superfamily Endocr. Rev., December 1, 1999; 20(6): 761 - 787. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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Y. Shang, C. R. Baumrucker, and M. H. Green Signal Relay by Retinoic Acid Receptors alpha and beta in the Retinoic Acid-induced Expression of Insulin-like Growth Factor-binding Protein-3 in Breast Cancer Cells J. Biol. Chem., June 18, 1999; 274(25): 18005 - 18010. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. M. Twigg, M. C. Kiefer, J. Zapf, and R. C. Baxter Insulin-like Growth Factor-binding Protein 5 Complexes with the Acid-labile Subunit. ROLE OF THE CARBOXYL-TERMINAL DOMAIN J. Biol. Chem., October 30, 1998; 273(44): 28791 - 28798. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. J. Schedlich, S. L. Le Page, S. M. Firth, L. J. Briggs, D. A. Jans, and R. C. Baxter Nuclear Import of Insulin-like Growth Factor-binding Protein-3 and -5 Is Mediated by the Importin beta Subunit J. Biol. Chem., July 28, 2000; 275(31): 23462 - 23470. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. Liu, H.-Y. Lee, S. A. Weinzimer, D. R. Powell, J. L. Clifford, J. M. Kurie, and P. Cohen Direct Functional Interactions between Insulin-like Growth Factor-binding Protein-3 and Retinoid X Receptor-alpha Regulate Transcriptional Signaling and Apoptosis J. Biol. Chem., October 20, 2000; 275(43): 33607 - 33613. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. J. Butt, S. M. Firth, M. A. King, and R. C. Baxter Insulin-like Growth Factor-binding Protein-3 Modulates Expression of Bax and Bcl-2 and Potentiates p53-independent Radiation-induced Apoptosis in Human Breast Cancer Cells J. Biol. Chem., December 8, 2000; 275(50): 39174 - 39181. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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