HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS		QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Kim, B.-C. Articles by Kim, J.-H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Kim, B.-C. Articles by Kim, J.-H. Social Bookmarking                      What's this?

J Biol Chem, Vol. 274, Issue 34, 24372-24377, August 20, 1999

Roles of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase and Rac in the Nuclear Signaling by Tumor Necrosis Factor- in Rat-2 Fibroblasts^*

Byung-Chul Kim, Mi-Na Lee, Ja-Young Kim^§, Sang-Soo Lee^¶, Jun-Dong Chang^¶, Sung-Soo Kim^§, Soo-Young Lee, and Jae-Hong Kim^**

From the  Department of Life Science, Kwang-Ju Institute of Science and Technology, Kwang-Ju 500-712, the ^§ Department of Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung-Hee University, Seoul 130-701, the ^¶ Department of Orthopedic Surgery, College of Medicine, Hallym University, Chun-Cheon 200-702, and the  Ewha Biotechnology Institute, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

We investigated the extent to which phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) and Rac, a member of the Rho family of small GTPases, are involved in the signaling cascade triggered by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- leading to activation of c-fos serum response element (SRE) and c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) in Rat-2 fibroblasts. Inhibition of PI 3-kinase by LY294002 or wortmannin, two specific PI 3-kinase antagonists, or co-transfection with a dominant negative mutant of PI 3-kinase dose-dependently blocked stimulation of c-fos SRE by TNF-. Similarly, LY294002 significantly diminished TNF--induced activation of JNK, suggesting that nuclear signaling triggered by TNF- is dependent on PI 3-kinase-mediated activation of both c-fos SRE and JNK. We also found nuclear signaling by TNF- to be Rac-dependent, as demonstrated by the inhibitory effect of transient co-transfection with a dominant negative Rac mutant, RacN17. Our findings suggest that Rac is situated downstream of PI 3-kinase in the TNF- signaling pathway to the nucleus, and we conclude that PI 3-kinase and Rac each plays a pivotal role in the nuclear signaling cascade triggered by TNF-.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase)¹ is a lipid kinase involved in mitogenic signal transduction and cellular transformation (1). Evidence from intact cells suggests that PI 3-kinase is activated by a variety of growth factors and exerts its cellular effects by elevating of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate levels (1-3). In mammalian cells, PI 3-kinase is required for growth factor-induced changes of the actin cytoskeleton that are mediated by Rac, a member of Rho family GTPases (2, 4, 5). For example, an inhibition of PI 3-kinase was shown to block growth factor induction of membrane ruffling, while activated PI 3-kinase is sufficient to induce membrane ruffling, acting through Rac (2, 4). Thus, Rac appears to lie downstream of PI 3-kinase within a signaling pathway that controls actin remodeling.

Rac is also crucially involved in the regulation of signal transduction cascades to the nucleus evoked by environmental stresses and proinflammatory cytokines; elements of such cascades include c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) (6, 7), c-fos serum response element (SRE) (8-10), p70^S6 kinase (11), and the transcription factor NF-B (12). For instance, in response to exogenous application of H₂O₂ or ceramide, a second messenger product of sphingomyelin hydrolysis by sphingomyelinase (13), c-fos SRE, was activated via a Rac-dependent signaling pathway, suggesting a role of Rac in stress-induced gene regulation (9, 10). Although the role of PI 3-kinase in the regulation of Rac-mediated membrane ruffling has been well studied (2, 4, 5), almost nothing is known about the potential role of PI 3-kinase in Rac-mediated gene regulation in response to environmental stress or proinflammatory cytokines.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- is one of the most pleiotropic proinflammatory cytokines, signaling a large number of cellular responses, including cytotoxicity, antiviral activity, fibroblast proliferation, and the transcriptional regulation of various genes (14). It is known that a large majority of the pleiotropic activities of TNF are signaled by the TNF receptor-1 (TNFR1; Refs. 15-17). TNF engagement of TNFR1 leads to the recruitment of TNFR1-associated death domain protein, receptor-interacting protein, and TNFR-associated factor-2 (TRAF2) leads to the formation of a receptor complex (18-20) within which receptor-interacting protein and TRAF2, respectively, transduce signals required for TNF-mediated activation of NF-B (21) and JNK (22-24). Nonetheless, little is known about the intracellular signaling mediating activation of nuclear transcription factors. In particular, the roles of PI 3-kinase and Rac in the nuclear signaling by TNF- are as yet unclear. In the present study, we investigated the extent to which PI 3-kinase and Rac are involved in the TNF--induced activation of c-fos SRE and JNK. Our findings suggest that both PI 3-kinase and Rac have crucial functions within the intracellular signaling cascade triggered by TNF- in Rat-2 fibroblasts.

	EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Chemicals and Reagents-- Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), mepacrine, and wortmannin (25), a PI 3-kinase antagonist, were purchased from Sigma. LY294002, another PI 3-kinase antagonist, and C₂-ceramide were purchased from BioMol (Plymouth Meeting, PA). TNF- was either purchased from Sigma or was obtained as a gift from Dr. D.-M. Jue (Catholic University Medical College, Seoul, Korea). Fetal bovine serum (FBS), gentamycin, and Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) were purchased from Life Technologies, Inc. Control (GsTsGCTCCTAAGTTTCTsAsT) and antisense (GsTsGCTGGTAAGGATCTsAsT) cytosolic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂) oligonucleotides were purchased from BioMol. The antisense oligonucleotide is directed against codons 4-9 of human cytosolic, Ca²⁺-dependent PLA₂. Note that the linkages are phosphothioated at both the 5' and 3' ends (lowercase "s" in sequences). All other chemicals were from standard sources and were molecular biology grade or higher.

Plasmids-- Reporter gene pSRE-Luc contains c-fos SRE oligonucleotide sequences (23-mer) inserted at the 53 position of a truncated basal c-fos promoter fused to the luciferase gene (10). The pEXV, pEXV-RacV12 (Rac1Val12), and pEXV-RhoV14 (RhoAVal14) plasmids were gifts from Dr. A. Hall (University College, London, United Kingdom). All Rac and Rho proteins were expressed as NH₂-terminally 9E10 epitope-tagged derivatives driven by SV40 promoter (26, 27). pSG5-p85iSH2-N (widely referred to as pSG5-p85), which encodes a dominant negative mutant of p85, a regulator of PI 3-kinase (2), was a gift from Dr. J. Downward (Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London, United Kingdom). Amino acids 478-513 are deleted in the mutant, which, consequently, lacks the binding site for the catalytic subunit.

Cell Culture, Transfections, and Luciferase Assay-- Rat-2 fibroblasts were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, CRL 1764). The cells were grown in DMEM supplemented with 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids (Life Technologies, Inc.), 10% FBS, 50 units/ml penicillin, and 50 µg/ml streptomycin at 37 °C under a humidified 95%, 5% (v/v) mixture of air and CO₂. The Rat2-RacN17 stable clone expressing a dominant negative Rac1mutant, RacN17, has been described previously (28).

Transient transfection was carried out by plating approximately 5×10⁵ cells in 100-mm dishes for 24 h and then adding calcium phosphate:DNA precipitates prepared with 20 µg of DNA/dish. The quantities of plasmid used were 3 µg of reporter gene (pSRE-Luc) and 5 µg of small GTPase expression plasmids (e.g. pEXV-RacV12). To control for variations in cell number and transfection efficiency, all clones were co-transfected with 1 µg of pCMV-GAL, a eukaryotic expression vector in which the Escherichia coli -galactosidase (lacZ) structural gene is under the transcriptional control of the cytomegalovirus promoter. In each transfection, the quantity of DNA used was held constant (20 µg) by adding sonicated calf thymus DNA (Sigma). After a 6-h incubation with calcium phosphate:DNA precipitates, cells were rinsed twice with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) before incubating them in fresh DMEM supplemented with 0.5% FBS for an additional 36 h. Each dish of cells was then rinsed twice with PBS and lysed in 0.2 ml of lysis solution (0.2 M Tris (pH 7.6) + 0.1% Triton X-100), after which lysed cells were scraped and spun for 1 min. Supernatants were assayed for protein concentration as well as luciferase and -galactosidase activities.

Luciferase activity was assayed using 10 µl of extract according to the manufacturer's protocol (Promega Luciferase Assay System; Promega, Madison, WI) and counted for 10 s in a Beckman liquid scintillation spectrometer using the tritium channel with the coincidence circuit disconnected. Transfection experiments were performed in triplicate with two independently isolated sets of cells, and the results were averaged. -Galactosidase assays were carried out on 50-µl aliquots of extract (diluted with 100 µl of H₂O) using 150 µl of 2× reaction buffer (3 mg/ml O-nitrophenyl--galactopyranoside, 2 mM MgCl₂, 61 mM Na₂HPO₄, 39 mM NaH₂PO₄, 100 mM 2-mercaptoethanol). Once a faint yellow color appeared, the reactions were stopped by the addition of 350 µl of 1 M Na₂CO₃. Optical density at 410 nm was then measured in a spectrophotometer and used to normalize luciferase activity to transfection efficiency. Protein concentrations were determined routinely using the Bradford procedure with Bio-Rad dye reagent and bovine serum albumin as a standard.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Assay-- PI 3-kinase activity was measured by in vitro phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol (PI), using essentially the same method as described previously (29). Subconfluent Rat-2 cells were serum-starved in serum-free DMEM for 16 h and then stimulated with TNF-. Each dish of cells was then washed twice in ice-cold PBS and lysed for 30 min at 4 °C in 1 ml of lysis buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 137 mM NaCl, 1 mM MgCl₂, 1 mM CaCl₂, 100 µM sodium vanadate, 2 mM EDTA, 1% Nonidet P-40, 10% glycerol, 2 µg/ml aprotonin, 10 µg/ml antipain, 5 µg/ml leupeptin, 0.5 µg/ml pepstatin, and 1.5 µg/ml benzamidine) with 34 µg/ml phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. After lysis, the soluble fractions were harvested by centrifugation (15,000 rpm for 15 min) at 4 °C. The harvested fractions (containing 1 mg of protein) were incubated with anti-phosphotyrosine agarose beads to immunoprecipitate PI 3-kinase. The immunoprecipitates were successively washed three times in washing buffer-1 (PBS containing 1% Nonidet P-40 and 100 µM sodium vanadate), three times in washing buffer-2 (100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) containing 500 mM LiCl₂ and 100 µM sodium vanadate), and finally two times in washing buffer-3 (25 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) containing 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, and 100 µM sodium vanadate). To these immunoprecipitates were added 20 µl of reaction buffer (10 µl of 100 mM MgCl₂ + 10 µl of phosphatidylinositol (200 µg/µl) sonicated in 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) containing 1 mM EGTA). After adding 10 µl of ATP solution (10 µM) containing 10 µCi of [-³²P]ATP, the immunoprecipitates were incubated for 20 min at room temperature with constant shaking. The reaction was stopped by the addition of 100 µl of 1 M HCl and 200 µl of CHCl₃-methanol (1:1). The samples were then centrifuged, and the lower organic phases were harvested and applied to silica gel TLC plates (Merck Co.) coated with 1% potassium oxalate. The TLC plates were developed in CHCl₃-CH₃OH-H₂O-NH₄OH (60:47:11.3:2), dried, and visualized autoradiographically.

JNK/Stress-activated Protein Kinase Assays-- To assay JNK activity mediated by TNF- or C₂-ceramide, subconfluent Rat-2 cells were serum-starved for 24 h in DMEM containing 0.5% FBS and then stimulated with TNF- or C₂-ceramide for 30 min. Each dish of cells was then washed with cold PBS, lysed by incubation for 5 min at 4 °C in 0.5 ml of ice-cold lysis buffer (20 mM Tris (pH 7.4) 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1% Triton X-100, 2.5 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 1 mM -glycerophosphate, 1 mM Na₃VO₄, 1 µg/ml leupeptin) with 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, scraped into Eppendorf tubes, and triturated by 10 passes through a 21.1-gauge needle on ice. The supernatant (cell lysate) was harvested by microcentrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 10 min. Protein concentrations were equalized by normalizing them to the protein levels (assayed by Bradford procedure with Bio-Rad dye reagent) measured before the JNK assay.

JNK activity was determined using a JNK assay kit according to the manufacturer's protocol (New England Biolabs). Briefly, an amino-terminal c-Jun (amino acid residues 1-89) fusion protein bound to glutathione-Sepharose beads was used to pull down JNK from cell lysates. The kinase reaction (50 µl) was then carried out using the c-Jun fusion protein as a substrate in the presence of cold ATP. Phosphorylation of the c-Jun fusion protein at Ser-63 was measured by Western blot using an anti-phospho-c-Jun rabbit polyclonal antibody that detects only catalytically activated c-Jun phosphorylated at Ser-63. Protein samples were heated to 95 °C for 5 min and subjected to SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis on 8% acrylamide gels, followed by transfer to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes for 2 h at 100 V using a Novex wet transfer unit. Membranes were then blocked overnight in PBS-T (PBS containing 0.01% (v/v) Tween 20) with 5% (w/v) nonfat dried milk, after which they were incubated for 2 h with primary antibody (anti-phospho-c-Jun) in PBS-T and then for 1 h with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody. The blots were developed using enhanced chemiluminescence kits (ECL, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Bands on XAR-5 film (Eastman Kodak Co.) corresponding to phospho-c-Jun were measured by densitometry.

	RESULTS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

c-fos SRE Is One of the Nuclear Target Sequences of TNF--- As an initial approach to understanding the role of PI 3-kinase in the signal transduction pathway between TNF- and the nucleus, we assessed the capacity of TNF- to stimulate c-fos SRE, which is a primary nuclear target for various extracellular signals (9-11, 30). To accomplish this, Rat-2 cells were transiently transfected with reporter plasmid pSRE-Luc (3 µg) containing c-fos SRE oligonucleotides inserted upstream of the c-fos minimal promoter fused to luciferase coding sequences (9). TNF--induced SRE activation was monitored by measuring luciferase activities normalized to co-transfected -galactosidase activity. As shown in Fig. 1, TNF- stimulated c-fos SRE-dependent reporter gene activity in a dose- and time-dependent manner. A maximal 5.7-fold increase in the luciferase activity occurred at a TNF- concentration of 10 ng/ml (Fig. 1, left panel) 1 h after its addition (Fig. 1, right panel). No TNF--induced luciferase activity was seen in cells transiently transfected with pO-Luc (vector without SRE; data not shown).

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1.   Dose- and time-dependent stimulation of c-fos SRE by TNF-. After transient transfection with pSRE-Luc, Rat-2 cells were serum-starved in DMEM containing 0.5% FBS for 36 h prior to TNF- treatment. Left panel, relative luciferase activity (reflecting SRE activation) evoked by incubating cells for 1 h with selected concentrations of TNF- (0, 1, 2, 5, 10, and 25 ng/ml). Right panel, time-dependent increase in SRE activation (luciferase activity) evoked by 10 ng/ml TNF-. Cells were incubated with TNF- for the times indicated. The results shown are representative of at least three independent transfections.

PI 3-Kinase Activity Is Essential for TNF- Signaling to c-fosSRE-- To assess the role of PI 3-kinase, we examined the effects of PI 3-kinase antagonists, LY294002 (Fig. 2A) and wortmannin (Fig. 2B) on TNF--induced c-fos SRE activation. Both compounds dose-dependently inhibited TNF--evoked SRE luciferase activity at levels that selectively inhibit PI 3-kinase activity (31, 32). As examples, 25 µM LY294002 reduced TNF--evoked SRE luciferase activity by ~40%, while 100 nM wortmannin reduced the activity by ~50%. C₂-Ceramide-induced SRE activation was similarly attenuated by PI 3-kinase inhibition (Fig. 2, A and B). Further, co-transfection with pSG5-p85 encoding a dominant negative PI 3-kinase mutant significantly and dose-dependently diminished TNF--induced stimulation of SRE-luciferase activity (Fig. 2C). Of the quantities tested, co-transfection with 5 µg of pSG5-p85 reduced TNF--induced stimulation of SRE-luciferase activity by ~75%, whereas lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-induced SRE activation was little affected. Taken together, these results are strongly suggestive of the participation of PI 3-kinase in TNF- signaling to c-fos SRE.

View larger version (19K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2.   PI 3-kinase activity is required for TNF--induced SRE activation. A and B, Rat-2 cells were transiently transfected with 3 µg of pSRE-Luc reporter plasmid and then serum-starved as described in Fig. 1. Thereafter, cells were incubated for 30 min with selected concentrations of LY294002 (0, 10, and 25 µM) (A) or wortmannin (0, 50, and 100 nM) (B) prior to incubation for 1 h with either control buffer, TNF- (10 ng/ml) or C2-ceramide (5 µM). C, pSRE-Luc (3 µg) was transiently co-transfected with selected amounts (1, 3, and 5 µg) of pSG5-p85 encoding a dominant negative mutant of PI 3-kinase. DNA sample size was held at 20 µg by addition of calf thymus carrier DNA. Transfectants were serum-starved for 36 h, then incubated for 1 h with TNF- (10 ng/ml) or LPA (10 µM), after which they were harvested and relative luciferase activity was assayed. Data are expressed as percentage of control. The results shown are representative of at least three independent transfections.

Encouraged by above results, we next directly assayed TNF--evoked PI 3-kinase activity by measuring the levels of the product, phosphatidylinositol phosphate, in serum-starved Rat-2 cells exposed to TNF- for 10 min (Fig. 3). Consistent with the above results, addition of TNF- stimulated PI 3-kinase activity significantly. Interestingly, we observed a similar stimulation of PI 3-kinase activity by TNF- in Rat2-RacN17 cells (28) stably expressing RacN17, a dominant negative Rac1 mutant, which means that in TNF- signaling Rac must act downstream of PI 3-kinase (Fig. 3).

View larger version (76K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3.   Stimulation of PI 3-kinase activity by TNF-. Serum-starved Rat-2 and Rat2-RacN17 cells were incubated for 10 min with TNF-, after which PI 3-kinase was immunoprecipitated using anti-phosphotyrosine agarose beads. PI 3-kinase activity was assayed by measuring levels of phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP), the product of PI 3-kinase.

Essential Role of Rac in the Nuclear Signaling by TNF--- PI 3-kinase activity induces repertoire of Rac-mediated responses (2, 4). Therefore, to investigate the potential role of Rac in the TNF- signaling to c-fos SRE, we tested the effect of transfection with the expression vector encoding RacN17. As shown in Fig. 4A, TNF--induced SRE activation was dramatically inhibited by co-transfection with 5 µg of pEXV-RacN17 (~65% reduction in luciferase activity), suggesting that Rac activity is crucial for TNF--induced signaling to c-fos SRE. On the other hand, SRE activation induced by 10 µM LPA was unaffected by pEXV-RacN17 transfection.

View larger version (26K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4.   Rac is essential for TNF--induced SRE activation. A, reporter gene plasmid pSRE-Luc (3 µg) was transiently co-transfected with 5 µg of pEXV (Vector) or pEXV-RacN17 (Rac1N17). DNA samples were held at 20 µg with by addition of calf thymus carrier DNA. The transfectants were serum-starved as described in Fig. 1. TNF- (10 ng/ml) or LPA (10 µM) was added 1 h prior to harvest, after which relative luciferase activities was assayed. B, Rat-2 and Rat2-RacN17 cells were transiently transfected with pSRE-Luc (3 µg). The transfectants were serum-deprived, and epidermal growth factor (EGF, 50 ng/ml), LPA (10 µM), or TNF- (10 ng/ml) was added 1 h prior to harvest, after which relative luciferase activities were assayed. The results shown are representative of at least three independent transfections.

The role of Rac was further investigated by comparing the SRE-luciferase activities in Rat-2 and Rat2-RacN17 cells. Fig. 4B shows TNF--induced SRE activation was inhibited by 50% in serum-starved Rat2-RacN17 cells. In contrast, levels of LPA-induced SRE activation were similar in Rat-2 and Rat2-RacN17 cells (Fig. 4B), while epidermal growth factor-evoked activation of SRE was reduced somewhat in Rat2-RacN17 cells. We, therefore, conclude that TNF- signaling to c-fos SRE is mediated, at least in part, by a Rac-dependent cascade.

Pretreatment with LY294002 Inhibits JNK Activation by TNF--- The effect of LY294002 on TNF--induced JNK activation was assessed to determine the extent to which it is dependent on PI 3-kinase and Rac activities. Serum-starved Rat-2 cells were pretreated with LY294002 (+) or control buffer () for 30 min before adding TNF- (10 ng/ml), C₂-ceramide (5 µM), or arachidonic acid (AA; 100 µM), a principal product of Rac-activated phospholipase A₂ (33). TNF- and C₂-ceramide each induced a ~5-fold increase of JNK activity as compared with control buffer, an effect that was dramatically inhibited by LY294002 (Fig. 5A). On the other hand, LY294002 had no inhibitory effect on AA-induced JNK activation, which suggests that PI 3-kinase is specifically required for activation of JNK by TNF- or C₂-ceramide and implies a common, essential role for PI 3-kinase in TNF--evoked activation of both JNK and c-fos SRE.

View larger version (31K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5.   LY294002 inhibits JNK activation induced by TNF-. A, Rat-2 cells were serum-starved and then incubated for 30 min with C2-ceramide (C2-Cer, 5 µM), TNF- (10 ng/ml), or AA (100 µM). Before the addition of agonists, cells were preincubated for 30 min with either LY294002 (20 µM) or control buffer. Protein samples of equal size were then assayed for JNK activity using c-Jun fusion protein (1-89) as a substrate. B, Rat-2 and Rat2-RacN17 cells were serum-starved and then incubated with TNF-, C2-ceramide, or AA as described in A, after which JNK activity was assayed.

To determine the function of Rac in TNF- signaling to JNK, levels of JNK activation were compared between control cells and cells stably expressing RacN17. As shown in Fig. 5B, TNF-- and C₂-ceramide-induced JNK activation was dramatically reduced in Rat2-RacN17 cells, indicating the importance of Rac activity in those cases. On the other hand, JNK activation induced by 100 µM AA was unaffected by RacN17 expression.

The signaling hierarchy between PI 3-kinase and Rac was investigated further by assessing the LY294002 sensitivity of SRE activation by RacV12, a constitutively activated form of Rac1. LY294002 had no inhibitory effect on SRE activation by RacV12 or RhoV14 (Fig. 6), whereas RasV12-induced SRE activation was significantly and dose-dependently inhibited by LY294002. This is consistent with previous reports showing that PI 3-kinase acts as a downstream mediator of H-Ras within the signaling cascades leading to actin remodeling and transformation (2, 3), and is further evidence that Rac is situated downstream of PI 3-kinase in the nuclear signaling cascade leading to activation of c-fos SRE or JNK. In a separate experiment, we observed that LY294002 had no inhibitory effect on RacV12-induced JNK activation in Rat-2 cells (data not shown).

View larger version (20K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6.   RacV12-induced SRE activation is not inhibited by LY294002. Reporter gene plasmid pSRE-Luc (3 µg) was transiently co-transfected into Rat-2 cells along with 5 µg of pEXV (Vector) or vectors expressing RacV12, RasV12, or RhoV14. DNA sample size was held at 20 µg by addition of calf thymus carrier DNA. Transfectants were serum-deprived for 12 h prior to incubation for 24 h with selected concentrations of LY294002 (0, 20, and 40 µM), after which relative luciferase activity was assayed. Data are expressed as percentage of the control (without LY294002 treatment).

Role of cPLA₂ in TNF- Signaling to SRE Activation-- We previously reported that cytosolic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂) plays an essential role in mediating Rac signaling to c-fos SRE and thus acts as an important downstream mediator of Rac (34). Considering the linkage between TNF- and Rac signaling, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that cPLA₂ may be involved in TNF- signaling to SRE. To test this possibility, we assessed the extent to which mepacrine, a potent PLA₂ inhibitor, inhibited TNF--induced activation of SRE. Fig. 7A shows that pretreatment with 1 µM mepacrine inhibited TNF--induced SRE activation by approximately 50% without affecting LPA-induced activation, suggesting PLA₂ is specifically required for TNF- signaling to c-fos SRE.

View larger version (21K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 7.   cPLA2 activity is involved in TNF--induced c-fos SRE activation. Effects of mepacrine, a potent PLA2 inhibitor, and antisense cPLA2 oligonucleotide on TNF--induced SRE activation were analyzed. A, Rat-2 cells were transiently transfected with reporter gene plasmid pSRF-Luc (3 µg) and then serum-starved, after which cells were pre-incubated for 30 min with selected concentrations of mepacrine (0, 0.5, and 1 µM) prior incubation for 1 h with TNF- (10 ng/ml), LPA (10 µM), or control buffer. Cells were then harvested and assayed for luciferase activity (percentage of control). B, Rat-2 cells were transiently co-transfected with antisense or control cPLA2 oligonucleotide (0.1 or 0.5 µM) along with reporter gene plasmid pSRE-Luc (3 µg). Transfectants were serum-starved as described in Fig. 1, after which they were incubated for 1 h with TNF- (10 ng/ml), LPA (10 µM), or control buffer, harvested, and assayed for luciferase assay.

To further analyze the role of PLA₂ in TNF- signaling, especially that of cPLA₂, we examined the effect of transfecting cells with antisense cPLA₂ oligonucleotide on TNF--induced SRE activation. Co-transfection with the antisense oligonucleotide but not the control oligonucleotide significantly inhibited TNF--induced SRE activation (Fig. 7B). For example, cotransfection with 0.5 µM cPLA₂ antisense oligomer reduced SRE activation by ~45%, which suggests that a Rac-cPLA₂-linked cascade is involved in TNF- signaling to c-fos SRE. In contrast, LPA-induced SRE activation was unaffected by transfection of the antisense oligonucleotide, suggesting that the involvement of cPLA₂ is specific to TNF--induced signaling to c-fos SRE.

	DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

In the present study, we provide evidence supporting novel roles for PI 3-kinase and Rac in the nuclear signaling cascade triggered by TNF- in Rat-2 fibroblasts. TNF- was previously reported to rapidly induce protooncogene c-fos in the adipogenic TA1 cell line, although the exact target promoter sequences by which TNF- stimulates c-fos transcription remain unknown (35). Our results clearly indicate that SRE is at least one of the nuclear target sequences by which TNF- stimulates c-fos expression. Consistent with this conclusion, c-fos SRE is also reported to be a nuclear target of ceramide, a putative second messenger for certain stresses (e.g. ultraviolet and x-rays) and inflammatory cytokines such as TNF- (9). In addition, our results suggest a role for cPLA₂ that is in good agreement with the earlier report of Haliday et al. (35) showing that AA and its lipoxygenase-generated metabolite are downstream elements in the TNF- signaling pathway to c-fos. The function of AA as a downstream mediator of TNF- signaling was also demonstrated in stromal cells, where AA mediates TNF--induced activation of JNK (36).

The involvement of PI 3-kinase in TNF--induced signaling to c-fos SRE was confirmed by the significant inhibitory effects of LT294003 and wortmannin, specific PI 3-kinase antagonists, and of transient transfection with pSG5-p85 encoding a dominant negative PI 3-kinase mutant. Consistent with this conclusion, JNK activation by TNF- was dramatically inhibited by LY294002, implying PI 3-kinase functions broadly as a downstream TNF- mediator in the signaling pathways leading to SRE and JNK activation. That TNF- stimulates PI 3-kinase activity in vitro lends additional support to this idea. We do not yet know the TNF- target molecule(s) that mediates PI 3-kinase activation; nonetheless, since the mode of action of C₂-ceramide is quite similar to that of TNF-, especially with respect to inhibition by LY294002, we postulate that enhanced production of ceramide might be involved. On the other hand, although further characterization is needed for confirmation, our evidence suggests the role of TRAF2 in the TNF- signaling to SRE or JNK is minimal. For example, a dominant negative mutant of TRAF2 does not inhibit activation of either JNK or SRE in cells exposed to TNF  (data not shown). This finding is in contrast to previous reports (22, 24) in which TRAF2 was shown to be essential for TNF--induced JNK activation in lymphocytes, suggesting the function of TRAF2 differs in Rat-2 fibroblasts and lymphocytes. In any event, our present findings make us confident that PI 3-kinase is essential for mediating the nuclear signaling cascades triggered by TNF- or ceramide, which is consistent with increasing evidence indicating that PI 3-kinase is activated by environmental stresses and growth factors (37-40).

We also found evidence for the role of Rac in TNF- signaling to the nucleus, which is consistent with earlier findings demonstrating an essential role of Rac in the nuclear signaling by C₂-ceramide, cytokines and environmental stresses (6, 7, 9). Thus, the present study shows that TNF- stimulates c-fos SRE and JNK via a signaling cascade involving PI 3-kinase and Rac. Although precise determination of the mechanisms of action of PI 3-kinase and Rac will require further study, we postulate a hierarchical relationship among these proteins (TNF-  PI 3-kinase  Rac), whereby Rac serves as a PI 3-kinase downstream molecule in a TNF--triggered nuclear signaling pathway. Future studies elucidating the linkage between PI 3-kinase and Rac will likely be pivotal to a complete understanding of TNF--evoked intracellular signaling.

	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. D.-M. Jue and Dr. A. Hall for providing recombinant human TNF- and expression plasmids (pEXV, pEXV-RacV12, and pEXV-RhoV14), respectively. We also thank Dr. J. Downward for providing us pSG5-p85 plasmid.

	FOOTNOTES

^* This work was supported by Korea Science and Engineering Foundation Grant 981-0505-027-2 and Molecular Medical Science Research Grant 02-03-A-05.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

^** To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 82-62-970-2495; Fax: 82-62-970-2484; E-mail: jkim@eunhasu.kjist.ac.kr.

	ABBREVIATIONS

The abbreviations used are: PI 3-kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; TNF-, tumor necrosis factor-; JNK, c-Jun amino-terminal kinase; PLA₂, phospholipase A₂; cPLA₂, cytosolic phospholipase A₂; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; SRE, serum response element; PBS-T, PBS plus Tween 20; TNFR1, tumor necrosis factor receptor-1; TRAF2, TNFR-associated factor-2; FBS, fetal bovine serum.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

CiteULike

Complore

Connotea

Del.icio.us

Digg

Reddit

Technorati

This article has been cited by other articles:

				I. Plaisance, C. Morandi, C. Murigande, and M. Brink TNF-{alpha} increases protein content in C2C12 and primary myotubes by enhancing protein translation via the TNF-R1, PI3K, and MEK Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, February 1, 2008; 294(2): E241 - E250. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				I. Hunter and G. F. Nixon Spatial Compartmentalization of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Receptor 1-dependent Signaling Pathways in Human Airway Smooth Muscle Cells: LIPID RAFTS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR TNF-{alpha}-MEDIATED ACTIVATION OF RhoA BUT DISPENSABLE FOR THE ACTIVATION OF THE NF-{kappa}B AND MAPK PATHWAYS J. Biol. Chem., November 10, 2006; 281(45): 34705 - 34715. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S.-H. Choi and S. B. Hwang Modulation of the Transforming Growth Factor-beta Signal Transduction Pathway by Hepatitis C Virus Nonstructural 5A Protein J. Biol. Chem., March 17, 2006; 281(11): 7468 - 7478. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C.-Y. Wei, K.-C. Huang, Y.-H. Chou, P.-F. Hsieh, K.-H. Lin, and W.-W. Lin The Role of Rho-Associated Kinase in Differential Regulation by Statins of Interleukin-1beta- and Lipopolysaccharide-Mediated Nuclear Factor {kappa}B Activation and Inducible Nitric-Oxide Synthase Gene Expression in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Mol. Pharmacol., March 1, 2006; 69(3): 960 - 967. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. Papaharalambus, W. Sajjad, A. Syed, C. Zhang, M. O. Bergo, R. W. Alexander, and M. Ahmad Tumor Necrosis Factor {alpha} Stimulation of Rac1 Activity: ROLE OF ISOPRENYLCYSTEINE CARBOXYLMETHYLTRANSFERASE J. Biol. Chem., May 13, 2005; 280(19): 18790 - 18796. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C.-H. Woo, J.-H. Lim, and J.-H. Kim VCAM-1 upregulation via PKC{delta}-p38 kinase-linked cascade mediates the TNF-{alpha}-induced leukocyte adhesion and emigration in the lung airway epithelium Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, February 1, 2005; 288(2): L307 - L316. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. A. Papakonstanti and C. Stournaras Tumor Necrosis Factor-{alpha} Promotes Survival of Opossum Kidney Cells via Cdc42-induced Phospholipase C-{gamma}1 Activation and Actin Filament Redistribution Mol. Biol. Cell, March 1, 2004; 15(3): 1273 - 1286. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. A. Jackson, D. M. Koterwas, M. A. Morgan, and A. P. Bradford Fibroblast Growth Factors Regulate Prolactin Transcription via an Atypical Rac-Dependent Signaling Pathway Mol. Endocrinol., October 1, 2003; 17(10): 1921 - 1930. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

K.-J. Park, S.-H. Choi, D.-H. Choi, J.-M. Park, S. W. Yie, S. Y. Lee, and S. B. Hwang Hepatitis C Virus NS5A Protein Modulates c-Jun N-terminal Kinase through Interaction with Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-associated Factor 2 J. Biol. Chem.