J Biol Chem, Vol. 275, Issue 6, 4407-4416, February 11, 2000

Reversible Inhibition of the Calcium-pumping ATPase in Native Cardiac Sarcoplasmic Reticulum by a Calmodulin-binding Peptide
EVIDENCE FOR CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT REGULATION OF THE V_max OF CALCIUM TRANSPORT^*

Ande Xu and Njanoor Narayanan

From the Department of Physiology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Calmodulin (CaM) and Ca²⁺/CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaM kinase) are tightly associated with cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and are implicated in the regulation of transmembrane Ca²⁺ cycling. In order to assess the importance of membrane-associated CaM in modulating the Ca²⁺ pump (Ca²⁺-ATPase) function of SR, the present study investigated the effects of a synthetic, high affinity CaM-binding peptide (CaM BP; amino acid sequence, LKWKKLLKLLKKLLKLG) on the ATP-energized Ca²⁺ uptake, Ca²⁺-stimulated ATP hydrolysis, and CaM kinase-mediated protein phosphorylation in rabbit cardiac SR vesicles. The results revealed a strong concentration-dependent inhibitory action of CaM BP on Ca²⁺ uptake and Ca²⁺-ATPase activities of SR (50% inhibition at ~2-3 µM CaM BP). The inhibition, which followed the association of CaM BP with its SR target(s), was of rapid onset (manifested within 30 s) and was accompanied by a decrease in V_max of Ca²⁺ uptake, unaltered K_0.5 for Ca²⁺ activation of Ca²⁺ transport, and a 10-fold decrease in the apparent affinity of the Ca²⁺-ATPase for its substrate, ATP. Thus, the mechanism of inhibition involved alterations at the catalytic site but not the Ca²⁺-binding sites of the Ca²⁺-ATPase. Endogenous CaM kinase-mediated phosphorylation of Ca²⁺-ATPase, phospholamban, and ryanodine receptor-Ca²⁺ release channel was also strongly inhibited by CaM BP. The inhibitory action of CaM BP on SR Ca²⁺ pump function and protein phosphorylation was fully reversed by exogenous CaM (1-3 µM). A peptide inhibitor of CaM kinase markedly attenuated the ability of CaM to reverse CaM BP-mediated inhibition of Ca²⁺ transport. These findings suggest a critical role for membrane-bound CaM in controlling the velocity of Ca²⁺ pumping in native cardiac SR. Consistent with its ability to inhibit SR Ca²⁺ pump function, CaM BP (1-2.5 µM) caused marked depression of contractility and diastolic dysfunction in isolated perfused, spontaneously beating rabbit heart preparations. Full or partial recovery of contractile function occurred gradually following withdrawal of CaM BP from the perfusate, presumably due to slow dissociation of CaM BP from its target sites promoted by endogenous cytosolic CaM.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

By regulating cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration, the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)¹ plays a central role in the contraction-relaxation cycle of heart muscle. Upon excitation of the cardiomyocyte, Ca²⁺ is released from the SR through Ca²⁺-release channels (known as RYR-CRC) to initiate muscle contraction (1-5). Subsequent muscle relaxation occurs upon sequestration of Ca²⁺ back into the SR lumen by a Ca²⁺-pumping ATPase (Ca²⁺-ATPase) present in the SR (1, 4, 6, 7). A well known mechanism for the regulation of the cardiac SR Ca²⁺-ATPase involves phosphorylation of another intrinsic SR protein, phospholamban (8-11). In its unphosphorylated state, phospholamban is thought to interact with the Ca²⁺-ATPase exerting an inhibitory effect; phosphorylation of phospholamban by cAMP-dependent protein kinase or CaM kinase is thought to disrupt this interaction resulting in stimulation of Ca²⁺ pump activity (8-11). In cardiac SR, the RYR-CRC also undergoes phosphorylation by CaM kinase (12-14), and this may result in stimulation of Ca²⁺ release from the SR (12, 15-17).

Recent studies from this laboratory (14, 18-22) and other laboratories (23-26) have demonstrated that in cardiac SR, a membrane-associated CaM kinase phosphorylates the Ca²⁺-ATPase in addition to RYR-CRC and phospholamban. The phosphorylation occurred at a serine residue and was specific for the cardiac/slow-twitch muscle isoform (SERCA2a) of the Ca²⁺-ATPase (18). Site-directed mutagenesis studies by Toyofuku et al. (23) resulted in the identification of Ser³⁸ as the site in SERCA2a that is phosphorylated by CaM kinase. Studies using native cardiac SR vesicles (14), purified SR Ca²⁺-ATPase preparations (14, 18), and SERCA2a expressed in HEK-293 cells (23) suggested that Ser³⁸ phosphorylation of the Ca²⁺-ATPase results in activation of the V_max of Ca²⁺ transport. Some studies have, however, questioned the physiological role of Ca²⁺-ATPase phosphorylation. Thus, a study by Odermatt et al. (24) showed CaM kinase-mediated phosphorylation of the Ca²⁺-ATPase in native rabbit cardiac SR as well as SERCA2a expressed in HEK-293 cells but failed to observe a significant stimulatory effect of phosphorylation on Ca²⁺-ATPase function. Another study by Reddy et al. (27) reported failure to observe phosphorylation of the Ca²⁺-ATPase in canine cardiac SR or purified Ca²⁺-ATPase reconstituted in lipid vesicles. These studies have attributed the stimulatory effect of CaM kinase to the phosphorylation of phospholamban and a consequent increase in Ca²⁺ affinity of the Ca²⁺-ATPase. In native cardiac SR, analysis of the selective effect of Ca²⁺-ATPase phosphorylation on Ca²⁺-pumping activity of this enzyme is hampered by the concomitant phosphorylation of phospholamban and RYR-CRC by the membrane-bound CaM kinase. Recently, we achieved selective phosphorylation of the Ca²⁺-ATPase by the SR-associated CaM kinase by utilizing a phospholamban monoclonal antibody, which inhibits phospholamban phosphorylation, and the RYR-CRC blocking drug, ruthenium red, which was found to inhibit RYR-CRC phosphorylation (22). Under these conditions, Ca²⁺-ATPase phosphorylation by endogenous CaM kinase resulted in enhanced V_max of Ca²⁺ transport (22). During the course of these studies we have found that, in addition to the endogenous CaM kinase, SR vesicles isolated from cardiac muscle contains significant amount of calmodulin that is resistant to extraction with high salt (0.6 M KCl). The presence of calmodulin in isolated SR vesicles may mask the true potential of calmodulin-dependent regulation of SR function in in vitro experiments. For example, since both calmodulin and CaM kinase are structured in the SR, introduction of Ca²⁺ to the assay medium to measure Ca²⁺ transport would also result in concurrent activation of CaM kinase and other Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent membrane events. This issue assumes a higher level of complexity given that CaM kinase, once activated, undergoes autophosphorylation and retains activity independently of Ca²⁺/calmodulin (28). In the present study, we utilized a previously characterized amphiphilic, high affinity calmodulin-binding peptide (29) to unmask the potential influence of SR-associated calmodulin on cardiac SR Ca²⁺-ATPase function. The results presented here demonstrate a strong inhibitory action of CaM BP on the Ca²⁺ ion-transporting as well as energy-transducing functions of the Ca²⁺-ATPase. This inhibition stems from the association of CaM BP with SR membrane target(s) and is readily reversed by calmodulin. These findings imply that a calmodulin-dependent process controls the velocity of Ca²⁺ pumping in native cardiac SR.

	EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Materials-- ⁴⁵CaCl₂ was purchased from NEN Life Science Products, and [-³²P]ATP was from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech. Reagents for electrophoresis were obtained from Bio-Rad. Monoclonal antibody against calmodulin was purchased from Upstate Biotechnology Inc. (Lake Placid, NY). All other chemicals were from Sigma.

Synthesis and Purification of Peptides-- A 17-amino acid high affinity calmodulin-binding peptide (designated CaM BP in this report), designed and characterized previously by DeGrado et al. (29), and three fragments of this peptide with overlapping residues were synthesized by the University of Victoria Protein Micro-chemistry Center using a model 430A Applied Biosystems peptide synthesizer. The C termini of the peptides were amidated. All peptides were purified by high performance liquid chromatography, analyzed by mass spectrometry, and sequenced on Applied Biosystems model 473A protein sequencer. The sequences included the following: CaM BP, LKWKKLLKLLKKLLKLG; fragment A, LKWKKLL; fragment B, LLKLLKK; and fragment C, KKLLKLG.

Preparation of SR Vesicles-- SR membrane vesicles were prepared from heart ventricles and fast-twitch (adductor magnus) skeletal muscle of New Zealand White rabbits (body weight 2.5-3 kg) as described previously (30). Following isolation, the SR vesicles were suspended in 10 mM Tris maleate (pH 6.8) containing 100 mM KCl and stored at 80 °C after quick-freezing in liquid N₂. Protein concentration was determined by the method of Lowry et al. (31) using BSA as standard.

Ca²⁺ Transport and Ca²⁺-ATPase Assays-- ATP-dependent, oxalate-facilitated Ca²⁺ uptake by SR was determined using a Millipore filtration technique as described previously (32). The standard incubation medium for Ca²⁺ uptake (total volume 250 µl) contained 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.2), 5 mM MgCl₂, 5 mM NaN₃, l20 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EGTA, 5 mM potassium oxalate, 5 mM ATP, 0.l mM ⁴⁵CaCl₂ (~8000 cpm/nmol; free Ca²⁺, 7.5 µM), 25 µM ruthenium red, and SR (6 µg of protein). In experiments where Ca²⁺ concentration dependence was studied, the EGTA concentration in the assay medium was held at 0.1 mM, and the amount of total ⁴⁵CaCl₂ added was varied in the range 1 to 200 µM to yield the desired free Ca²⁺. Modifications to the standard incubation medium are specified in the figure legends. Unless indicated otherwise, all assays were carried out at 37 °C; the Ca²⁺ transport reaction was initiated by the addition of SR vesicles after preincubation of the rest of the assay components for 3 min. The initial free Ca²⁺ concentrations in the assay medium were determined using the computer program of Fabiato (33). The data on Ca²⁺ concentration dependence on Ca²⁺ uptake were analyzed by nonlinear regression curve fitting using SigmaPlot scientific graph program (Jandel Scientific) run on an IBM-PC computer. The data were fit to Equation 1,

(Eq. 1)

where v is the measured Ca²⁺ uptake activity at a given Ca²⁺ concentration; V_max is the maximum activity reached; K_0.5 is the Ca²⁺ concentration giving half of V_max, and n is the equivalent to the Hill coefficient.

Ca²⁺-ATPase activity of SR membranes was quantified as described previously (34) using an incubation medium identical to that used for Ca²⁺ uptake except that [-³²P]ATP was used instead of nonradioactive ATP and nonradioactive CaCl₂ was used instead of ⁴⁵CaCl₂. Parallel assays were also performed in the absence of Ca²⁺ (i.e. in the presence of 0.2 mM EGTA with no CaCl₂ added to the assay medium), and the Ca²⁺-ATPase activity was defined as the difference in ATP hydrolysis (liberation of ³²P_i) measured in the absence and presence of Ca²⁺. The ATPase reaction was initiated by the addition of SR vesicles after preincubation of the rest of the assay components for 3 min at 37 °C and was allowed to proceed for 2 min.

Western Immunoblotting-- Western blotting analysis of endogenous calmodulin in SR vesicles was performed using a monoclonal antibody specific for calmodulin (35). SR proteins were fractionated on SDS-polyacrylamide (15%, homogenous) mini-gels and then electroblotted to nitrocellulose sheets. The sheets were incubated in 0.2% glutaraldehyde in PBS for 45 min at 24 °C and then rinsed in PBS. Nonspecific binding sites were blocked with 2% BSA, 0.1% gelatin in PBS for 60 min at 37 °C. Following three 15-min washes with 0.05% Tween 20 in PBS, the sheets were incubated with anti-calmodulin monoclonal antibody (0.5 µg/ml in PBS) for 60 min at 37 °C and then with alkaline phosphatase-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG secondary antibody (dilution 1:1000). After five 10-min washes in PBS/Tween, the sheets were rinsed with deionized water, and the immunoreactive peptide band representing calmodulin was visualized following color development using a Bio-Rad assay kit.

Phosphorylation Assay-- Endogenous CaM kinase-catalyzed SR protein phosphorylation was measured as described previously (18). The standard incubation medium (total volume 50 µl) for phosphorylation by endogenous CaM kinase contained 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.4), 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.1 mM CaCl₂, 0.1 mM EGTA, 1 µM calmodulin, 0.8 mM [-³²P]ATP (specific activity, 300-400 cpm/pmol), and SR (30 µg of protein). The phosphorylation reaction was initiated by the addition of SR after preincubation of the rest of the assay components for 3 min at 37 °C. The reaction was terminated after 2 min by the addition of 15 µl of SDS sample buffer, and the samples were analyzed in 4-18% SDS-polyacrylamide gels. The gels were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue, dried, and autoradiographed. Quantification of phosphorylation was carried out by liquid scintillation counting after excision of the radioactive bands from the gels (18).

Heart Perfusion and Measurement of Contractile Function-- Rabbits were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (35 mg/kg, intravenously), and the hearts were excised and immediately cannulated for retrograde aortic perfusion of the coronary arteries with mammalian Ringer solution consisting of 154 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 2.2 mM CaCl₂, 6 mM NaHCO₃, and 5.5 mM dextrose. The perfusion buffer was equilibrated with 95% O₂, 5% CO₂, which maintained a pH of 7.4; the perfusion temperature was set at 37 ± 0.2 °C. The hearts were perfused at a constant flow rate of 25 ml/min using a peristaltic pump. After an initial 15-20 min of perfusion, when the spontaneous beating had stabilized, a latex balloon-tipped cannula filled with degassed H₂O was inserted into the lumen of the left ventricle for obtaining systolic left ventricular pressure development. The cannula was connected via a pressure transducer (COBE, Bramalea, Canada) to a BioPac System Digital Monitor (model MP100) and a personal computer that allowed on-line monitoring of left ventricular pressure and off-line calculation of developed pressure, rate of pressure development (+dP/dt), and rate of relaxation (dP/dt).

Data Presentation-- Unless specified otherwise, the experimental values represent the average of at least three independent experiments using separate SR preparations performed in duplicate. The data are presented as mean ± S.E.

	RESULTS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Effects of Varying Concentrations of CaM BP and Its Fragments on ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ Uptake by Cardiac SR in the Absence and Presence of Calmodulin-- The ATP-dependent, oxalate-facilitated Ca²⁺ uptake by SR vesicles is a useful, commonly used parameter to measure the Ca²⁺ pump (Ca²⁺-ATPase) function of SR in vitro (6). The results presented in Fig. 1 demonstrate the effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP and its fragments on ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ uptake by cardiac SR vesicles measured in the absence and presence of calmodulin in the assay medium. When assays were performed in the absence of calmodulin, CaM BP caused strong, concentration-dependent inhibition of Ca²⁺ uptake by SR with virtually complete inhibition occurring at <5 µM CaM BP (Fig. 1A). Fragmented molecules of CaM BP (CaM BP fragments A-C) failed to inhibit Ca²⁺ uptake by SR (Fig. 1A, inset). Addition of low micromolar concentrations of calmodulin to the assay medium prevented the inhibitory action of CaM BP on Ca²⁺ uptake by SR, in a concentration-dependent manner, and caused appreciable stimulation (~40-55%) of Ca²⁺ uptake (Fig. 1, A and B, inset). The results presented in Fig. 1A and the inset in Fig. 1B were obtained under the standard Ca²⁺ uptake assay conditions with 6 µg of SR protein in the assay medium (see under "Experimental Procedures"). In additional experiments, the effect of CaM BP on Ca²⁺ uptake by SR was determined with varying amounts of SR in the assay medium. The results presented in Fig. 1B show that the concentration dependence curve for CaM BP inhibition of Ca²⁺ uptake is progressively shifted to the right with increasing concentration of SR in the assay. These findings suggest that the inhibitory action of CaM BP stems from its apparently stoichiometric interaction with one or more targets in the SR, and such interaction is prevented by calmodulin.

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1.   Effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP and its fragments on ATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake by cardiac SR in the absence and presence of calmodulin. The Ca2+ uptake reaction was carried out for 2 min in the standard assay medium (see "Experimental Procedures") with 6 µg of SR protein in the assay (A and inset in B) or with varying amounts of SR protein in the assay (B). In the experiments shown in A, Ca2+ uptake was determined in the absence of CaM BP and in the presence of varying concentrations of CaM BP without calmodulin in the assay () and with 3 µM calmodulin in the assay (). In the experiments shown in the inset in A, Ca2+ uptake was determined in the absence of CaM BP and in the presence of varying concentrations of CaM BP () or CaM BP fragments (, CaM BP fragment A; , CaM BP fragment B; , CaM BP fragment C). In the experiments shown in B, Ca2+ uptake was determined in the absence of CaM BP and in the presence of varying concentrations of CaM BP with differing amounts of SR protein (, 3 µg; , 6 µg; , 9 µg; , 15 µg; , 20 µg) in the assay. In the experiments shown in the inset in B, Ca2+ uptake was determined in the absence of calmodulin (CaM) and in the presence of varying concentrations of CaM without CaM BP in the assay () and with 5 µM CaM BP in the assay (). Each data point in A represents the mean ± S.E. of four experiments using separate SR preparations. Each data point in B and the inset in A represent the average value from duplicate determinations using a single SR preparation.

Effect of CaM BP on Cardiac SR Ca²⁺-ATPase Activity-- Since CaM BP inhibited ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ uptake by cardiac SR, the effect of CaM BP on Ca²⁺-ATPase activity (ATP hydrolysis) was investigated. The results presented in Fig. 2 show that, under the assay conditions identical to that used for Ca²⁺ uptake, CaM BP caused concentration-dependent inhibition of Ca²⁺-stimulated ATPase activity. The inhibition of Ca²⁺-ATPase activity and Ca²⁺ uptake by CaM BP occurred at similar concentration range with only a minor difference in K_i values for Ca²⁺ uptake (50% inhibition at ~2 µM CaM BP) and Ca²⁺-ATPase activity (50% inhibition at ~2.8 µM CaM BP) (Fig. 2, inset). Thus the observed reduction in Ca²⁺ uptake is mainly a consequence of a primary inhibition of ATPase activity by CaM BP. Addition of calmodulin (3 µM) to the assay medium reversed the inhibitory effect of CaM BP on Ca²⁺-ATPase activity (Fig. 2).

View larger version (25K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2.   Concentration-dependent inhibitory action of CaM BP on Ca2+-ATPase activity of cardiac SR and correlation between inhibition of Ca2+ uptake and ATP hydrolysis. The Ca2+-ATPase and Ca2+ uptake reactions were carried out for 2 min in the standard assay medium (see "Experimental Procedures"). The main figure shows the effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP on Ca2+-ATPase activity measured in the absence of calmodulin () and in the presence of 3 µM calmodulin () in the assay medium; each data point represents mean ± S.E. of four experiments using separate SR preparations. In the experiments shown in the inset, the effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP on Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+-ATPase activities were determined using the same SR preparation; the results are presented as percent inhibition of Ca2+ uptake or Ca2+-ATPase activity as a function of CaM BP concentration in the assay medium.

Effect of CaM BP on the Time Course of Ca²⁺ Uptake by Cardiac SR-- Fig. 3A shows the time course of ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ uptake by cardiac SR measured in the absence of CaM BP and in the presence of two selected concentrations of CaM BP (2 and 4 µM) with or without calmodulin. The rates of Ca²⁺ uptake by SR is strongly inhibited by CaM BP; the inhibition was of rapid onset (manifested within 30 s) and the degree of inhibition increased with increasing concentration of CaM BP. Addition of calmodulin (3 µM) to the assay medium prevented the inhibitory action of CaM BP.

View larger version (18K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3.   Effect of CaM BP on the time course of Ca2+ uptake by cardiac SR. The Ca2+ uptake reaction was carried out in the standard assay medium (see "Experimental Procedures") for various time intervals as indicated. In the experiments shown in A, the time course of Ca2+ uptake was measured in the absence of CaM BP (), in the presence of CaM BP without calmodulin (, 2 µM CaM BP; , 4 µM CaM BP), and in the presence of CaM BP plus calmodulin (, 4 µM CaM BP plus 3 µM calmodulin). In the experiments show in B, the time course of Ca2+ uptake was measured using control SR (), and CaM BP-pretreated SR without calmodulin () or with 3 µM calmodulin () in the Ca2+ uptake assay medium. In the experiments shown in C, the time course of Ca2+ uptake was measured using control SR () and SR pretreated with CaM BP alone () or CaM BP plus calmodulin (). CaM BP-pretreated SR was obtained by incubating SR vesicles (250 µg of protein) in buffer A (total volume 600 µl) containing 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.2), 5 mM MgCl2, 5 mM NaN3, 120 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EGTA, 0.1 mM CaCl2, 5 mM ATP, and 5 µM CaM BP, in the absence or in the presence of 3 µM calmodulin, for 10 min at 24 °C. The SR vesicles were then recovered by centrifugation, washed twice with buffer B (10 mM Tris maleate, 100 mM KCl (pH 6.8)), resuspended in the same buffer, and used for Ca2+ uptake assays. SR vesicles subjected to the same experimental protocol but without CaM BP in buffer A served as the control for these experiments. Each data point in A and B represents mean ± S.E. of three experiments using separate SR preparations. Each data point in C represents the average of duplicate determinations using a single SR preparation.

In the experiments described thus far, the effect of CaM BP was assessed by adding this peptide directly to the Ca²⁺ uptake assay medium. In order to determine whether the inhibitory action of CaM BP results from its association with SR membrane target(s), in subsequent experiments, the time course of Ca²⁺ uptake was measured using CaM BP-pretreated and control SR vesicles obtained as follows. Cardiac SR vesicles were incubated with 5 µM CaM BP in the absence of calmodulin and in the presence of 3 µM calmodulin for 10 min at 24 °C. Subsequently, the SR vesicles were recovered by centrifugation, washed to remove free CaM BP and calmodulin, and then the time course of Ca²⁺ uptake was determined under standard assay conditions in the absence of calmodulin or in the presence of 3 µM calmodulin. SR vesicles subjected to the same experimental protocol but without CaM BP in the incubation medium served as control for these experiments. The results from these experiments showed that pretreatment of SR with CaM BP leads to markedly reduced rates of Ca²⁺ uptake (Fig. 3, B and C); this decline in Ca²⁺ uptake rates is not observed when CaM BP-pretreatment of SR is performed in the presence of calmodulin (Fig. 3C) or when Ca²⁺ uptake assays with CaM BP-pretreated SR is performed in the presence of calmodulin (Fig. 3B). These findings suggest that the inhibitory action of CaM BP is dependent on its association with the SR membrane and that calmodulin is able to prevent the onset of CaM BP-mediated inhibition as well as reverse pre-existing inhibition induced by CaM BP.

Blockade of Ca²⁺ Uptake by Addition of CaM BP during the Turnover Cycle of Cardiac SR Ca²⁺-ATPase-- To investigate the effect of CaM BP on cardiac SR Ca²⁺-ATPase during its turnover, CaM BP was added to the Ca²⁺ uptake assay medium 3 min 15 s after initiating Ca²⁺-ATPase turnover. The time course of Ca²⁺ uptake was monitored prior to and following the addition of CaM BP for several minutes. It was found that addition of CaM BP (3 µM) during the turnover cycle of Ca²⁺-ATPase resulted in an apparently instantaneous and short-lived release of a small fraction (~25%) of the pre-existing SR Ca²⁺ load as well as complete cessation of further Ca²⁺ uptake by SR vesicles (Fig. 4). Addition of calmodulin (3 µM) together with CaM BP (3 µM) prevented the above effects of CaM BP (Fig. 4). In additional experiments, it was found that the fractional Ca²⁺ release induced by CaM BP did not exceed 25% of the pre-existing SR Ca²⁺ load at higher concentrations (up to 5 µM) of CaM BP (data not shown). These findings suggest that about 75% of the inhibitory effect of CaM BP on the measured Ca²⁺ uptake activity of SR stems from inhibition of the SR Ca²⁺ pump (Ca²⁺-ATPase); the remaining 25% of the inhibitory effect may be attributed to CaM BP-induced Ca²⁺ release. Since calmodulin prevented the effects of CaM BP, it is likely that CaM BP exerts its effects by interfering with calmodulin-dependent processes that are normally involved in the control of Ca²⁺ sequestering and Ca²⁺ release functions of the SR.

View larger version (19K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4.   Cessation of Ca2+ uptake by cardiac SR upon addition of CaM BP during Ca2+-ATPase turnover cycle. Ca2+ uptake was initiated by the addition of SR (at zero time in figure) to the standard incubation medium (see "Experimental Procedures") preincubated for 3 min at 37 °C. At the time (3 min 15 s) indicated by the arrow, CaM BP (, final concentration 3 µM), CaM BP plus calmodulin (, final concentration 3 µM each), or vehicle solution (, H2O) was added to the reaction mixture. The time course of Ca2+ uptake was monitored prior to and following the addition of the above agents for several minutes as indicated. In a parallel assay, the SR Ca2+ load at 3 min 15 s (the time indicated by the arrow) was determined to be 1208 nmol/mg protein. Results from a typical experiment are shown. Similar results were obtained in two additional experiments using separate SR preparations.

Effect of CaM BP on Ca²⁺ Uptake by Cardiac SR at Varying Concentrations of Ca²⁺ and ATP-- The results presented in Fig. 5 show the effect of two selected concentrations of CaM BP (1.5 and 3 µM) on Ca²⁺ uptake by cardiac SR at a wide range of Ca²⁺ concentrations (9 nM to 67 µM). CaM BP inhibited Ca²⁺ uptake at all Ca²⁺ concentrations tested. At the submaximally effective concentrations of CaM BP used, the inhibitory effect could not be overcome with increasing Ca²⁺ concentration. On the other hand, addition of calmodulin (3 µM) to the assay medium fully reversed the inhibitory effect of CaM BP. The kinetic parameters derived from the data shown in Fig. 5 are summarized in Table I. It can be seen that the inhibitory action of CaM BP is associated with a decrement in V_max without appreciable changes in the apparent affinity of the Ca²⁺-ATPase for Ca²⁺ or the Hill coefficient (n_H) for Ca²⁺.

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5.   Effect of CaM BP on ATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake by cardiac SR at varying Ca2+ concentrations. The Ca2+ uptake reaction was carried out for 1 min in the standard assay medium (see "Experimental Procedures") in the absence of CaM BP (), in the presence of CaM BP (, 1.5 µM; , 3 µM), and CaM BP plus calmodulin (, 3 µM each of CaM BP and calmodulin). The concentration of free Ca2+ in the assay medium was varied as indicated. Each data point represents the mean ± S.E. of four experiments using separate SR preparations.

As shown in Fig. 6, CaM BP (1.5 and 3 µM) inhibited Ca²⁺ uptake by cardiac SR at various ATP concentrations, and calmodulin (3 µM) reversed the inhibitory effect. Kinetic parameters derived from the data showed that CaM BP inhibition is associated with decrements in V_max (V_max (nmol Ca²⁺/mg protein/min): control, 500 ± 83; +1.5 µM CaM BP, 387 ± 56; +3 µM CaM BP, 273 ± 30; +3 µM CaM BP and 3 µM calmodulin, 572 ± 72) and the apparent affinity of the Ca²⁺-ATPase for ATP (K_0.5 for ATP (mM): control, 0.285 ± 0.02; +1.5 µM CaM BP, 0.557 ± 0.09; +3 µM CaM BP, 2.87 ± 0.23; +3 µM CaM BP and 3 µM calmodulin, 0.274 ± 0.03).

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6.   Effect of CaM BP on ATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake by cardiac SR at varying ATP concentrations. The Ca2+ uptake reaction was carried out for 1 min in the standard assay medium (see "Experimental Procedures") in the absence of CaM BP (), in the presence of CaM BP (, 1.5 µM; , 3 µM), and CaM BP plus calmodulin (, 3 µM each of CaM BP and calmodulin). The concentration of ATP in the assay was varied as indicated. Each data point is the mean ± S.E. of three experiments using separate SR preparations.

Reversible Association of CaM BP with Cardiac SR and the Presence of Endogenous Calmodulin in Cardiac SR-- As described earlier, pretreatment of cardiac SR with CaM BP (in the absence but not in the presence of calmodulin) resulted in diminished rates of Ca²⁺ uptake suggesting that the inhibitory action of CaM BP is dependent on its association with the SR membrane (cf. Fig. 3, B and C). In order to visualize the physical association of CaM BP with SR, experiments were performed in which cardiac SR vesicles were pretreated with CaM BP in the absence and presence of calmodulin and then the SR proteins were fractionated by electrophoresis on SDS-polyacrylamide (4-18% linear gradient) gels. In these experiments, the electrophoresis was terminated when the dye front had reached about 1 cm above the bottom of the gel so that the low molecular weight peptide (CaM BP molecular mass 2062 daltons) could be retained on the gel matrix. The protein profiles in Coomassie Blue-stained gels from these experiments showed association of CaM BP with the SR membrane when pretreatment with CaM BP was carried out in the absence but not in the presence of calmodulin (Fig. 7A). Furthermore, the SR-bound CaM BP could be readily dissociated from the membrane when CaM BP-pretreated SR was subsequently incubated with calmodulin (Fig. 7A). These findings clearly demonstrate that CaM BP associates with the SR, and calmodulin prevents and reverses this association.

View larger version (42K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 7.   Reversible association of CaM BP with cardiac SR and the presence of endogenous CaM in cardiac SR. Presented in A is a Coomassie Blue-stained SDS-polyacrylamide gel (4-18% gradient) depicting protein profiles of control SR (lane 1), CaM BP-pretreated SR (lane 2), CaM BP plus CaM-pretreated SR (lane 3), and CaM BP-pretreated SR subsequently incubated with CaM (lane 4). The control and CaM BP-and/or CaM-pretreated SR were obtained as described in the legend to Fig. 3. The identity of the bands designated RYR-CRC and Ca2+-ATPase were confirmed by Western immunoblotting (cf. Refs. 18 and 21). Presented in B is a Western immunoblot demonstrating the presence of endogenous CaM in rabbit cardiac SR (RbCMSR). Immunoblots obtained using control SR, CaM BP-pretreated SR, and a sample of commercial CaM (from Sigma) are shown. The results presented in A and B are typical of three experiments using separate SR preparations.

Western immunoblotting analysis using a monoclonal antibody specific for calmodulin (35) showed considerable amount of endogenous calmodulin in the isolated cardiac SR vesicles (Fig. 7B). Since the procedure used for the isolation of SR vesicles involved extraction of the membranes with high salt (0.6 M KCl, cf. Ref. 30), it appears that the endogenous calmodulin detected is firmly structured in the SR membrane. Also, treatment of SR with CaM BP does not seem to result in appreciable dissociation of calmodulin from the SR (Fig. 7B).

Reversible Inhibition of Endogenous CaM Kinase-mediated Cardiac SR Protein Phosphorylation by CaM BP-- Activation of SR-associated -CaM kinase by calmodulin and consequent phosphorylation of phospholamban, Ca²⁺-ATPase, and RYR-CRC are thought to regulate both the Ca²⁺ uptake and release functions of the SR (8-17, 22). In view of this, experiments were performed to determine the effects of CaM BP on endogenous CaM kinase-mediated SR protein phosphorylation. The results presented in Fig. 8 demonstrate that CaM BP causes concentration-dependent inhibition of phosphorylation of phospholamban, Ca²⁺-ATPase, and RYR-CRC; this inhibition is reversed by increasing the concentration of calmodulin in the phosphorylation assay medium. Thus, CaM kinase, a major calmodulin target in the SR, is inhibited by CaM BP.² The inhibitory effects of CaM BP on SR protein phosphorylation and SR Ca²⁺ pump function are manifested at the same concentration range of CaM BP (e.g. see Fig. 1 and Fig. 8).

View larger version (73K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 8.   Reversible inhibition of endogenous CaM kinase-mediated cardiac SR protein phosphorylation by CaM BP. The phosphorylation reaction was carried out for 2 min in the standard assay medium (see "Experimental Procedures"). The concentrations of CaM and CaM BP were varied as indicated. The top left panel shows Coomassie Blue-stained SDS-polyacrylamide gel depicting SR protein profile; the top right panel shows an autoradiogram of the same gel depicting protein phosphorylation. The phosphorylated peptide bands representing RYR-CRC, Ca2+-ATPase, and phospholamban (PLN; H, high molecular weight form; L, low molecular weight form) were excised from the gel, and 32P incorporation was quantified by liquid scintillation counting, and the results are presented in the bottom panels.

Relationship between the Inhibitory Effects of CaM BP on Cardiac SR CaM Kinase and SR Ca²⁺ Uptake-- In additional experiments, we utilized a synthetic CaM kinase inhibitor peptide (corresponding to amino acid residues 290-309 of CaM kinase II, cf. Ref. 28) to investigate the potential relationship between the inhibitory effects of CaM BP on cardiac SR CaM kinase and SR Ca²⁺ uptake. In these experiments, the effects of varying concentrations of CaM kinase inhibitor peptide on Ca²⁺ uptake by SR was determined in the absence and presence of CaM BP and/or calmodulin in the assay medium. The results are summarized in Fig. 9. CaM kinase inhibitor peptide abolished the stimulatory effect of calmodulin on Ca²⁺ uptake by SR but did not affect the basal Ca²⁺ uptake measured in the absence of calmodulin. Interestingly, the ability of calmodulin to reverse the inhibitory effect of CaM BP on Ca²⁺ uptake by SR was markedly attenuated by the CaM kinase inhibitor peptide. These findings indicate that reversal of the inhibitory effect of CaM BP by calmodulin is dependent, at least in part, on CaM kinase activation.

View larger version (20K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 9.   Attenuation of calmodulin-mediated reversal of the inhibitory action of CaM BP on cardiac SR Ca2+ uptake by a CaM kinase II inhibitor peptide. The Ca2+ uptake reaction was carried out for 2 min under standard conditions (see "Experimental Procedures") without and with varying concentrations of CaM kinase II inhibitor peptide in the assay medium as indicated. The assays were performed in the absence of CaM BP and calmodulin (), in the presence of 3 µM CaM BP (), 3 µM calmodulin (), and 3 µM each of CaM BP and calmodulin (). Results from a typical experiment are shown. Similar results were obtained in two additional experiments using separate SR preparations.

Effects of CaM BP on Ca²⁺-ATPase and Ca²⁺ Uptake Activities of Fast-twitch Skeletal Muscle SR-- It has been demonstrated previously that the Ca²⁺-ATPase in cardiac SR, but not fast-twitch skeletal muscle SR, undergoes phosphorylation by endogenous and exogenous CaM kinase (18). Therefore, it was of interest to examine whether CaM BP influenced the Ca²⁺-ATPase activity and Ca²⁺ transport function of fast skeletal muscle SR. As shown in Fig. 10A, under assay conditions identical to those used in the experiments using cardiac SR (cf. Fig. 1A and Fig. 2), CaM BP (0.5-5 µM) did not inhibit the Ca²⁺-ATPase activity of fast skeletal muscle SR; instead a stimulatory effect was observed. On the other hand, the ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ uptake activity of fast skeletal muscle SR was inhibited by CaM BP at the same concentration range in which no inhibitory effect on Ca²⁺-ATPase activity could be observed (Fig. 10B). Thus, the observed inhibition of Ca²⁺ uptake reflects CaM BP-induced activation of Ca²⁺ release from the SR. This is in direct contrast to the concurrent inhibition of Ca²⁺ uptake and Ca²⁺-ATPase activity by CaM BP observed in cardiac SR (cf. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). Inclusion of calmodulin (3 µM) in the assay medium prevented the effects of CaM BP on Ca²⁺-ATPase and Ca²⁺ uptake activities of fast skeletal muscle SR (Fig. 10, A and B).

View larger version (17K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 10.   Effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP on Ca2+-ATPase and Ca2+ uptake activities of fast skeletal muscle SR. The Ca2+-ATPase and Ca2+ uptake reactions were carried out for 2 min in the standard assay medium as described under "Experimental Procedures." A shows the effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP on Ca2+-ATPase activity measured in the absence of calmodulin () and in the presence of 3 µM calmodulin (). B shows the effects of varying concentrations of CaM BP on Ca2+ uptake activity measured in the absence of calmodulin () and in the presence of 3 µM calmodulin (). Each data point represents mean ± S.E. of three (A) or six (B) experiments using separate SR preparations.

Activation of Ca²⁺ Release upon Addition of CaM BP to Ca²⁺-preloaded Fast Skeletal Muscle SR Vesicles-- Addition of CaM BP to the assay medium after initiating Ca²⁺-ATPase turnover resulted in rapid and sustained Ca²⁺ release from fast skeletal muscle SR vesicles (Fig. 11). This response to CaM BP is also different from the short-lived fractional Ca²⁺ release observed in the case of cardiac SR under identical assay conditions (Fig. 4). Addition of calmodulin (3 µM) together with CaM BP (3 µM) prevented the Ca²⁺ release-promoting effect of CaM BP on fast-twitch skeletal muscle SR (Fig. 11).

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 11.   Activation of Ca2+ release upon addition of CaM BP to Ca2+-preloaded fast skeletal muscle SR vesicles. Ca2+ uptake was initiated by the addition of SR (at zero time in figure) to the standard incubation medium (see "Experimental Procedures") preincubated for 3 min at 37 °C. At the time (3 min 15 s) indicated by the arrow, CaM BP (, final concentration 3 µM), CaM BP plus calmodulin (, final concentration 3 µM each), or vehicle solution (, H2O) was added to the reaction mixture. The time course of Ca2+ uptake was monitored prior to and following the addition of the above agents for several minutes as indicated. Each data point represents mean ± S.E. of four experiments using separate SR preparations.

Effect of CaM BP on Cardic Contractile Function-- In view of the strong inhibitory action of CaM BP on Ca²⁺ uptake by cardiac SR observed in vitro, it was of considerable interest to examine the effect of this peptide on cardiac contractile function. The hydrophobic nature of CaM BP (29) facilitated such investigation using isolated perfused heart preparations. In isolated, spontaneously beating rabbit heart preparations perfused at a constant flow rate, CaM BP (1 and 2.5 µM) produced marked concentration-dependent depression of contractile function as evidenced by decrements in developed left ventricular pressure, rates of pressure development and relaxation, as well as pronounced elevation of end diastolic pressure (Fig. 12 and Table II). These effects were discernible within 2 min after initiating perfusion with CaM BP. The observed depression of contractility and diastolic dysfunction correlate well with the ability of this peptide to inhibit SR Ca²⁺ pump function. The depression of contractile function induced by a low concentration of CaM BP (1 µM) was fully reversible upon reperfusion with normal buffer over a period of 20-30 min. However, only partial recovery of contractile function was observed upon reperfusion following infusion of a higher concentration (2.5 µM) of CaM BP. In these spontaneously beating preparations, the heart rate (beats/min) was not altered significantly during perfusion with CaM BP, but an enhancement in heart rate was observed during reperfusion with normal buffer subsequent to infusion of 2.5 µM (but not 1 µM) CaM BP (Fig. 12 and Table II).

View larger version (27K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 12.   Effect of CaM BP on cardiac contractile function. Contractile function was assessed in isolated perfused, spontaneously beating rabbit heart as described under "Experimental Procedures." Shown are contractions recorded during perfusion with control buffer, buffer containing 1 µM or 2.5 µM CaM BP, and following reperfusion with control buffer subsequent to perfusion with CaM BP. The effects of CaM BP on contractile function parameters are summarized in Table II. Results similar to those shown here were obtained in three additional isolated perfused heart preparations studied. LVP, left ventricular pressure.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table II Effects of CaM BP on cardiac contractile function Contractile function was assessed in isolated perfused, spontaneously beating rabbit heart as described under "Experimental Procedures." Segments of 15 consecutive contractions such as those depicted in Fig. 12 were analyzed to obtain the average value shown for each parameter. Similar findings were obtained in three additional isolated heart preparations. LVP, left ventricular pressure; +dP/dt, maximum rate of pressure development; dP/dt, maximum rate of relaxation.

	DISCUSSION

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In this study, we have made the following novel, key observations. (i) At low micromolar concentrations, CaM BP strongly inhibits active Ca²⁺ sequestration by isolated cardiac SR vesicles. (ii) The inhibition of Ca²⁺ transport is mainly the consequence of a primary inhibition of the SR Ca²⁺-ATPase. (iii) Cardiac SR vesicles contain firmly bound endogenous calmodulin, and exogenously added calmodulin readily reverses the inhibitory action of CaM BP on the energy transduction and Ca²⁺ ion transport functions of the SR Ca²⁺-ATPase. Taken together, these findings suggest a crucial role for SR-associated calmodulin in the regulation of cardiac SR Ca²⁺ pump function. As discussed below, analysis of the characteristics of Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibition by CaM BP, and the reversal of inhibition by calmodulin, has provided insights into the mechanisms of action of CaM BP.

CaM BP inhibits the SR Ca²⁺-ATPase rapidly (Fig. 3A), and the inhibition results from the association of CaM BP with SR membrane target(s) (Fig. 3, B and C and Fig. 7). The association of CaM BP with its SR target(s) appears to be stoichiometric (Fig. 1B) although actual stoichiometry could not be determined as CaM BP binding to SR was not quantified in this study. CaM BP is an amphiphilic peptide with high affinity for calmodulin (dissociation constant for binding ~0.2 nM, cf. Ref. 29), and several lines of evidence presented here suggest that SR-associated calmodulin is a prime target of CaM BP. Thus, we have found that (i) presence of exogenous calmodulin in the incubation medium prevents association of CaM BP with SR (Fig. 7A) and blocks the inhibition of Ca²⁺-ATPase by CaM BP; (ii) exogenous calmodulin is effective in displacing CaM BP previously bound to SR (Fig. 7A) and in reversing pre-existing CaM BP-induced inhibition of Ca²⁺-ATPase (Fig. 3B); and (iii) the intact CaM BP molecule capable of high affinity calmodulin binding, but not its truncated fragments that lack the ability to bind calmodulin, inhibits the SR Ca²⁺-ATPase (Fig. 1A). From the above evidence, it appears that the effects of CaM BP arise from its ability to interact with endogenous calmodulin in the SR and consequent perturbations in calmodulin-dependent membrane events.

In exploring the mechanistic links downstream of CaM BP-calmodulin interaction, we found that CaM BP strongly inhibited cardiac SR-associated CaM kinase (Fig. 8), a key natural target of calmodulin, implicated in the regulation of both Ca²⁺ uptake and release functions of the SR through phosphorylation of phospholamban (8-11), Ca²⁺-ATPase (14, 18-20, 22), and RYR-CRC (12-17, 21). The CaM BP-induced inhibition of CaM kinase was readily reversed by exogenous calmodulin. In addition, we found that a CaM kinase inhibitor peptide markedly attenuated the ability of exogenous calmodulin to reverse CaM BP-induced inhibition of Ca²⁺ uptake by SR (Fig. 9). Taken together, these findings suggest that the inhibitory effect of CaM BP on cardiac SR Ca²⁺ pump function is orchestrated, at least in part, through inhibition of SR CaM kinase. It should be noted that unlike CaM BP, the CaM kinase inhibitor peptide did not inhibit the basal Ca²⁺ uptake activity of SR, although it was effective in blocking the stimulatory effect of exogenous calmodulin on Ca²⁺ uptake (Fig. 9). The CaM kinase inhibitor peptide used in this study is modeled after the calmodulin-binding region of CaM kinase (amino acid residues 290-309), so it can be expected to inhibit CaM kinase by scavenging calmodulin added to the assay medium (28). However, this peptide is membrane-impermeant (28) and, hence, cannot access endogenous SR-associated calmodulin, a functionally important pool that may be trapped within the CaM kinase molecule through a process of sequential intersubunit autophosphorylation (36). A hydrophobic molecule like CaM BP, with high affinity for calmodulin, is apparently able to access a functionally important pool of calmodulin structured in the SR membrane matrix and/or trapped within the CaM kinase molecule. It is also worth noting here that KN-62, a widely used CaM kinase inhibitor, with undefined mechanism of action, does not inhibit the endogenous CaM kinase in cardiac SR (37).

Interestingly, fast skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺-ATPase, which is not phosphorylated by CaM kinase (18), is not inhibited by CaM BP (Fig. 10A). On the other hand, the observed CaM BP-induced activation of Ca²⁺ release from fast skeletal muscle SR vesicles (Fig. 11) and consequent inhibition of SR Ca²⁺ loading (Fig. 10B) are essentially similar to the effects of calmodulin antagonists such as calmidazolium and compound 48/80 on skeletal muscle SR reported previously by Tuana and MacLennan (38). Also, the effects of CaM BP on skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺ uptake, Ca²⁺-ATPase activity, and Ca²⁺ release are readily reversed by calmodulin (Fig. 10, A and B, and Fig. 11). Since the intrinsic functional properties and reaction mechanism of Ca²⁺-ATPase are similar in cardiac and skeletal muscle SR (6, 39), it is unlikely that the observed divergent effects of CaM BP on cardiac and skeletal muscle SR arise from direct interaction of the peptide with the Ca²⁺-ATPase. All of the above observations, on the other hand, suggest that CaM BP interferes with calmodulin-dependent membrane events. The observed stimulatory effect of CaM BP on skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺-ATPase likely results from the collapse of Ca²⁺ gradient across the SR vesicles (due to activation of Ca²⁺ release) as build up of high Ca²⁺ concentration inside the vesicles leads to inhibition of Ca²⁺-ATPase (40).

Besides CaM kinase, RYR-CRC is a natural target of calmodulin in the SR, and binding of calmodulin to high (nanomolar) affinity sites on RYR-CRC is known to inhibit Ca²⁺ release (41, 42). The fractional Ca²⁺ release from cardiac SR seen upon addition of CaM BP to the assay medium during active Ca²⁺ transport (Fig. 4) may be a consequence of CaM BP-induced disruption of the normal interaction between calmodulin and RYR-CRC. Alternatively, the observed fractional Ca²⁺ release may reflect release of ATPase-bound Ca²⁺ (i.e. Ca²⁺ ions in transit) to the assay medium owing to CaM BP-mediated structural perturbations in the enzyme molecule (see below).

Analysis of the influence of CaM BP on the kinetic parameters of Ca²⁺ transport has provided further insights into the mechanism underlying Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibition. The inhibitory effect of CaM BP was associated with a decrease in the V_max of Ca²⁺ transport without appreciable changes in the K_0.5 for Ca²⁺ activation of Ca²⁺ transport or the Hill coefficient for Ca²⁺ (Table I). These findings suggest that CaM BP-mediated structural perturbations in the Ca²⁺-ATPase does not alter the functional properties of the Ca²⁺-binding sites located in the transmembrane region of the ATPase (6, 7). On the other hand, analysis of the effect of CaM BP on ATP concentration dependence revealed that 50% decrease in V_max of Ca²⁺ transport was accompanied by a 10-fold decrease in the apparent affinity of the ATPase for its substrate, ATP (Fig. 6). Since the inhibitory effect of submaximally effective concentration of CaM BP could not be overcome by increasing the concentration of ATP, CaM BP inhibition is non-competitive with respect to ATP. These findings imply that CaM BP-mediated inhibition involved a major alteration at the catalytic site located in the extramembranous region of the Ca²⁺-ATPase (6, 7).

Our observations on the effects of CaM BP on SR Ca²⁺-ATPase and its mechanism of action are unique when compared with those reported for other basic calmodulin-binding peptides such as melittin (derived from bee venom) and C28R2 (derived from the autoinhibitory domain of plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPase). Melittin has been shown to inhibit skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺-ATPase (43-46), and C28R2 has been shown to inhibit both cardiac and skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺-ATPase (47). It has been suggested that these peptides inhibit enzyme activity by electrostatically cross-linking Ca²⁺-ATPase into large inactive aggregates (43, 44, 47) or by binding to hydrophilic cytoplasmic domain of the Ca²⁺-ATPase without causing enzyme aggregation (45, 46). Unlike melittin and C28R2, CaM BP does not inhibit skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺-ATPase. Furthermore, the inhibitory action of melittin on skeletal muscle SR Ca²⁺-ATPase is accompanied by a decrease in the enzyme's affinity for Ca²⁺ and unaltered affinity for ATP (46). In contrast, CaM BP inhibition of cardiac SR Ca²⁺-ATPase is associated with a pronounced decrease in the affinity of enzyme for ATP and unaltered affinity for Ca²⁺.

The characteristics of Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibition by CaM BP also differ from those of other inhibitors of SR Ca²⁺-ATPase such as thapsigargin, cyclopiazonic acid, and clotrimazole. Unlike CaM BP, (i) the above drugs produce marked decrease in the Ca²⁺-binding affinity of the ATPase (48-50), and (ii) their inhibitory action on the SR Ca²⁺-ATPase is irreversible (48-50). To our knowledge, the present report is the first to describe inhibition of the SR Ca²⁺ pump by a synthetic peptide that could be readily reversed by a biologically important, Ca²⁺ signal-transducing molecule such as calmodulin.

The CaM BP-induced depression of contractility and diastolic dysfunction observed in isolated perfused hearts (Fig. 12 and Table II) correlate well with the ability of CaM BP to inhibit SR Ca²⁺ pump function. Interestingly, full or partial recovery of contractile function occurred gradually following withdrawal of CaM BP from the perfusion medium, presumably due to slow dissociation of CaM BP from its target sites promoted by endogenous cytosolic calmodulin.

In conclusion, the findings presented here implicate a critical role for membrane-bound calmodulin in controlling the Ca²⁺ sequestering activity of the cardiac SR Ca²⁺ pump. Calmodulin acts on multiple targets in the SR and activates divergent physiological events. It serves to promote Ca²⁺ sequestration as well as Ca²⁺ release (9-11, 12, 15, 41, 42) and protein phosphorylation as well as protein dephosphorylation (9-11, 18-22). The topology of calmodulin in the SR and the mechanisms that allow calmodulin to dictate these reciprocal phenomena are currently unknown. Perhaps, calmodulin structured in the SR membrane is segregated functionally as "target-dedicated" molecules, and the interaction of calmodulin with a specific target is governed by its ability to sense changes in cytosolic and/or SR lumenal Ca²⁺ concentration as well as Ca²⁺-regulated conformational status of the target. In this way, membrane-bound calmodulin may serve as a Ca²⁺-sensitive molecular switch that controls and coordinates Ca²⁺ release and Ca²⁺ sequestration in concert with the contraction-relaxation cycle of the heart.

	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. J. A. Hudspeth, 1997 Stevenson Lecturer from The Rockefeller University, for helpful discussions regarding the use of CaM BP as a CaM kinase II inhibitor. We thank Lily Jiang for secretarial assistance.

	FOOTNOTES

^* This work was supported by Medical Research Council of Canada Grant MT9553.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

To whom correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed: Dept. of Physiology, Medical Sciences Bldg., The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada. Tel.: 519-661-3469; Fax: 519-661-3827; E-mail Address: nnarayan@physiology.uwo.ca.

² In other experiments, CaM BP (1-5 µM) was found to have no effect on phosphorylation of phospholamban by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Thus, CaM kinase but not cAMP-dependent protein kinase is susceptible to inhibition by CaM BP.

	ABBREVIATIONS

The abbreviations used are: SR, sarcoplasmic reticulum; RYR-CRC, ryanodine receptor-Ca²⁺ release channel; CaM kinase, Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II; CaM BP, calmodulin-binding peptide; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; BSA, bovine serum albumin.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES