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J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 276, Issue 47, 43564-43569, November 23, 2001

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Preferential ATP-binding Cassette Transporter A1-mediated Cholesterol Efflux from Late Endosomes/Lysosomes^*

Wengen Chen, Yu Sun, Carrie Welch, Anna Gorelik, Andrew R. Leventhal, Ira Tabas, and Alan R. Tall^§

From the Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032

Received for publication, August 17, 2001, and in revised form, September 13, 2001

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Recently, ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), the defective molecule in Tangier disease, has been shown to stimulate phospholipid and cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I); however, little is known concerning the cellular cholesterol pools that act as the source of cholesterol for ABCA1-mediated efflux. We observed a higher level of isotopic and mass cholesterol efflux from mouse peritoneal macrophages labeled with [³H]cholesterol/acetyl low density lipoprotein (where cholesterol accumulates in late endosomes and lysosomes) compared with cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol with 10% fetal bovine serum, suggesting that late endosomes/lysosomes act as a preferential source of cholesterol for ABCA1-mediated efflux. Consistent with this idea, macrophages from Niemann-Pick C1 mice that have an inability to exit cholesterol from late endosomes/lysosomes showed a profound defect in cholesterol efflux to apoA-I. In contrast, phospholipid efflux to apoA-I was normal in Niemann-Pick C1 macrophages, as was cholesterol efflux following plasma membrane cholesterol labeling. These results suggest that cholesterol deposited in late endosomes/lysosomes preferentially acts as a source of cholesterol for ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Tangier disease (TD)¹ is a rare condition associated with low levels of plasma high density lipoproteins (HDL) and accumulation of cholesterol and cholesteryl esters in macrophage foam cells in tonsils, spleen, and other tissues (1). The cellular defect in TD involves a marked decrease in the efflux of cholesterol and phospholipid to apoA-I, the major protein of HDL (2, 3). Recently, TD was shown to be caused by mutations in the ATP-binding cassette transporter, ABCA1 (4-7). Mice with deficiency of ABCA1 also have low HDL. In addition, macrophages from these animals have a profound defect in apoA-I-mediated cholesterol efflux (8-10), indicating that apolipoprotein-mediated cholesterol efflux is primarily mediated by ABCA1. In contrast, ABCA1 shows only slight interaction with HDL₃ and no interaction with HDL₂ (11). Cellular cholesterol efflux mediated by HDL is thought to involve a "passive" process that may be diffusion-mediated or may involve an interaction of HDL with scavenger receptor B-I (SR-BI) (12, 13).

ABCA1 is a full transporter with 12 membrane-spanning domains (5, 14). Transfection of ABCA1 in 293 cells reveals a predominant cell surface localization and suggests a direct interaction of ABCA1 with apoA-I (11). The primary activity of ABCA1 appears to be the translocation of phospholipid at the plasma membrane rather than direct interaction with cholesterol (15, 16). Phospholipid-apoA-I complexes formed by ABCA1 may promote cholesterol efflux in a secondary fashion perhaps involving distinct areas of the plasma membrane (15, 17). The nature of the cellular sites that donate cholesterol to these phospholipid-apoA-I complexes is poorly understood. This may involve specific plasma membrane domains that derive cholesterol from intracellular stores. The nature of intracellular sites that potentially donate cholesterol to the plasma membrane for ABCA1-mediated efflux is also unclear. Niemann-Pick C (I and II) molecules play an essential role in intracellular cholesterol trafficking, particularly in the exit of cholesterol from late endosomes/lysosomes (18-21). Earlier studies suggested a defect in cholesterol efflux to phospholipid vesicles in NPC1 fibroblasts (22), but the specific role of NPC1 in ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux has not been investigated.

The ABCA1 gene is up-regulated by cellular cholesterol loading (23). The mechanism of this effect is increased gene transcription mediated by the oxysterol-activated transcription factor liver X receptor (LXR) acting in a complex with retinoid X receptor (RXR) at a site on the proximal promoter of the ABCA1 gene (24). While studying cholesterol efflux from macrophages that had been treated with the LXR/RXR ligands 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid to up-regulate ABCA1, we noticed a marked discrepancy between the magnitude of ABCA1 expression and the resulting stimulation of cholesterol efflux, depending on the method of cellular cholesterol labeling. This led to an investigation of the hypothesis that ABCA1 stimulates cholesterol efflux preferentially from a pool of cholesterol found in late endosomes/lysosomes. This hypothesis has been evaluated by comparing cholesterol efflux under different labeling conditions and supported by the demonstration of a profound defect in cholesterol efflux to apoA-I using macrophages from NPC1 mice.

	EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Ribonuclease Protection Assay-- Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was used to obtain a fragment of the murine ABCA1 cDNA. Murine ABCA1 and -actin antisense riboprobes were prepared by in vitro transcription using murine ABCA1 -actin cDNA plasmid constructs. The protected hybrid fragments for ABCA1 and -actin were 290 and 160 base pairs, respectively. Ribonuclease protection assay was performed as described (25). In brief, 20 µg of total RNA were hybridized with 5 × 10⁵ cpm ABCA1 and -actin riboprobes at 48 °C overnight in 30 µl of a buffer consisting of 40 mM PIPES, pH 6.0, 400 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, and 80% formamide. The hybridization mixture was digested with 20 units of T₂ ribonuclease (Life Technologies, Inc.) at 37 °C for 1 h, extracted with phenol/chloroform, precipitated with ethanol, and dissolved in 5 µl of RNA loading buffer. The protected RNA hybrid fragments were resolved on a 6% polyacrylamide/urea gel and subjected to autoradiography.

Immunoblot Analysis of ABCA1-- For immunoblot analysis of ABCA1, peritoneal macrophages were washed and scraped in PBS and lysed in 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.3, 1 mM MgCl₂, and 0.5% Nonidet P-40 in the presence of protease inhibitors (0.5 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µg/ml aprotinin, 1 µg/ml pepstatin A; Roche Molecular Biochemicals). Postnuclear supernatants from cell lysates were prepared by centrifugation at 3000 × g for 10 min at 4 °C. Samples containing the indicated amounts of protein were reduced with 2-mercaptoethanol in gel loading buffer, fractionated by 7.5% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and transferred to 0.22-µm nitrocellulose membranes. Immunoblotting was performed using an anti-ABCA1 antiserum (Novus, Littleton, CO) and ECL (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The relative intensities of the bands were determined by densitometry (Molecular Dynamics, model 300A).

Lipoprotein Isolation-- Human low density lipoprotein (LDL, 1.006<d<1.063) and high density lipoprotein (HDL₂, 1.063<d<1.125) were isolated from plasma by sequential ultracentrifugation. Acetyl LDL (AcLDL) was prepared as described (26). Apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) was purchased from Biodesign International (Saco, ME).

Isolation and Culture of Mouse Peritoneal Macrophages-- Homozygous NPC1 were produced by intercrossing BALB/cNctr-npc1^N/+ (BALB-npc1^N/+) mice (stock number 003092; Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME). Mouse peritoneal macrophages were isolated from NPC1 and wild type (wt) littermates by peritoneal lavage with PBS 3 days after intraperitoneal injection with 1 ml of 3.85% thioglycollate (Becton Dickinson, Sparks, MD). The isolated cells were plated onto 24-well plates and allowed to adhere by incubation for 4 h at 37 °C in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Life Technologies). After removal of nonadherent cells by washing with PBS, the cells were further incubated for 2 days and then used for cholesterol labeling and efflux experiments.

[³H]Cholesterol Labeling of Cells-- Mouse peritoneal macrophages were labeled with [³H]cholesterol carried by one of three delivery agents to investigate cholesterol efflux from different pools: (a) AcLDL (late endosomes/lysosomes pool); (b) 10% FBS/DMEM (recycling endosomes pool); and (c) 5 mM methyl--cyclodextrin (plasma membrane pool). For procedure a, cells were labeled overnight by 1 µCi/ml [1,2-³H(N)]-cholesterol (PerkinElmer Life Sciences) in DMEM, 0.2% BSA supplemented with 50 µg/ml AcLDL. LXR/RXR ligands 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol (final concentration, 10 µM) and 9-cis-retinoic acid (final concentration, 10 µM) (BIOMOL Research Laboratories, Plymouth Meeting, PA) were added during the labeling to induce ABCA1 expression. After the labeling, the cells were washed with PBS and equilibrated with DMEM, 0.2% BSA for 1 h. Efflux was then performed as described below. For procedure b, the cells were labeled with 1 µCi/ml [³H]cholesterol in 0.5 ml of DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS for 24 h. The cells were then equilibrated overnight in DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the LXR/RXR ligands 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid. After washing, the cells were used for efflux experiments. For procedure c, the cells were first treated with the ligands 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid in DMEM, 0.2% BSA overnight to induce ABCA1. Then the medium was replaced by 5 mM methyl -cyclodextrin:cholesterol at molar ration 8:1 ([³H]cholesterol, 1 µCi/ml) for 15 min at 37 °C. After washing, the cells were used for efflux step.

[³H]Cholesterol Efflux Study-- After labeling and equilibration, the cells were incubated by 10 µg/ml purified human apoA-I or 15 µg/ml human HDL₂ in 0.5 ml of DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the LXR/RXR ligands for 4 h. Then medium was collected and centrifuged at 6000 × g for 10 min to remove cell debris and cholesterol crystal, and radioactivity in an aliquot of supernatant was determined by liquid scintillation counting. The cells were finally lysed in 0.5 ml of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide, 0.1% SDS and the radioactivity in an aliquot was determined. Cholesterol efflux was expressed as the percentage of the radioactivity released from the cells into the medium relative to the total radioactivity in cells and media.

Cholesterol Mass Analysis-- The cells in 6-well plates were [³H]cholesterol labeled by procedure a as described above. After 4 h of incubation with 10 µg/ml apoA-I (see Fig. 2) or 15 µg/ml human HDL₂ (see Fig. 6), medium was collected, and the cells were lysed in 0.1 M sodium hydroxide and 0.1% SDS. Lipids were extracted in chloroform:methanol (2:1). The organic residue was dissolved in 0.5% Triton X-100. Cholesterol was determined enzymatically (Wako Chemicals USA, Richmond, VA). Protein was determined by the Lowry method.

[³H]Phospholipid Efflux Study-- Macrophages in a 24-well plate were choline labeled for 24 h in 0.5 ml of DMEM, 10% FBS supplemented with 1.0 µCi/ml [³H]choline (PerkinElmer Life Sciences). After overnight equilibration in DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the LXR/RXR ligands treatment, the cells were washed twice in PBS, 0.2% BSA. Efflux was performed by incubation with 10 µg/ml apoA-I for 4 h in 0.5 ml DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the ligands. Then medium was collected and centrifuged at 6000 × g for 10 min to remove cell debris. [³H]Phospholipids in an aliquot of supernatant were first extracted with chloroform:methanol (2:1), and then the radioactivity was determined by scintillation counting. The cells were finally lysed in 0.5 ml of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide, 0.1% SDS, and the radioactivity in an aliquot after lipid extraction was determined. The percentage of secreted [³H]phospholipid was calculated by dividing the medium-derived counts by the sum of the total (medium plus cell).

Statistical Analysis-- The results are presented as the means ± S.D. The tests for the significant differences between groups were performed by Student's t test.

	RESULTS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

We recently showed that ABCA1 mRNA is up-regulated by activation of LXR/RXR (24). To determine whether this resulted in an increase in functional ABCA1 protein, we measured cholesterol efflux to apoA-I in mouse peritoneal macrophages cells treated with the LXR/RXR ligands 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid. This treatment resulted in a marked up-regulation of ABCA1 mRNA (not shown) and protein levels (Fig. 1A) and an increase in cholesterol efflux (Fig. 1B) as anticipated (27). Surprisingly, the level of cholesterol efflux was about 2.5-fold higher in activated cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol AcLDL compared with cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS (Fig. 1B, compare bars 4 and 2), despite comparable levels of ABCA1 expression (Fig. 1A; note that ABCA1 protein appears as a doublet for unknown reason). AcLDL is internalized by the scavenger receptor A and accumulates primarily in late endosomes and lysosomes (28), whereas the [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS method appears to preferentially label recycling endosomes and the trans-Golgi network (29). These findings suggested the hypothesis that ABCA1 might preferentially stimulate cholesterol efflux from late endosomes/lysosomes rather than from cellular cholesterol pools labeled by [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS.

View larger version (32K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1.   Discrepancy between the magnitude of ABCA1 expression and the resulting cholesterol efflux with different cellular cholesterol labeling methods. wt peritoneal macrophages were [3H]cholesterol labeled by 10% FBS, DMEM (lanes 1 and 2) or 50 µg/ml AcLDL (lanes 3 and 4), with or without LXR/RXR ligands (22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid) treatment as described under "Experimental Procedures." After equilibration in DMEM, 0.2% BSA, the cells were incubated with 10 µg/ml of apo-A-I for 4 h in DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the LXR/RXR ligands. A, Western blot of ABCA1 following SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of cell lysates. Representative data are from one of two independent experiments. Cholesterol efflux (B) was expressed as the medium [3H]cholesterol radioactivity as a percentage of total [3H]cholesterol radioactivity (cells plus medium). Representative data are from one of three independent experiments. The values are the means ± S.D. (n = 3). *, p < 0.01, bar 2 versus bar 4. ch, cholesterol; 22ch, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; RA, 9-cis-retinoic acid.

To further explore this idea, cholesterol mass and isotopic efflux to apoA-I were measured in cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS, with [³H]cholesterol/AcLDL, or with [³H]cholesterol/cyclodextrin. In the latter procedure, the cells are labeled briefly (15 min) with cyclodextrin:cholesterol (8:1, molar ratio), and the radiolabel is thought to reside mostly in the plasma membrane (30, 31). These experiments showed greater isotopic and mass efflux of cholesterol in activated cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol/AcLDL, compared with cells labeled in either of the other two ways (Fig. 2), consistent with the idea that the late endosomal/lysosomal cholesterol pool is a preferential source for cholesterol efflux by ABCA1. Activation of LXR/RXR did result in a marked increase in isotopic and mass cholesterol efflux from cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol/cyclodextrin, suggesting that the plasma membrane cholesterol also contributes significantly to ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux. However, for the [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS labeling method, isotopic efflux was only slightly increased by LXR/RXR activation, whereas cholesterol mass efflux was increased in a similar fashion to [³H]cholesterol/cyclodextrin-labeled cells. This finding could arise if the radiolabel was primarily present in pools of cholesterol inaccessible to ABCA1 (i.e. recycling endosomes) (29), whereas cholesterol mass efflux reflected efflux from the plasma membrane where cholesterol would be unlabeled by this method.

View larger version (19K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2.   Isotopic and mass efflux of cholesterol from macrophages treated with the three different [3H]cholesterol labeling methods. wt mouse peritoneal macrophages in 6-well plates were [3H]cholesterol labeled by 10% FBS, AcLDL, or cyclodextrin and treated with or without the LXR/RXR ligands as described under "Experimental Procedures." After equilibration in DMEM, 0.2% BSA, the cells were incubated with 10 µg/ml apoA-I for 4 h. [3H]cholesterol efflux (A) was expressed as the medium [3H]cholesterol radioactivity as a percentage of total [3H]cholesterol radioactivity (cells plus medium). For cholesterol mass assay (B), cholesterol in the medium was first extracted and measured enzymatically. Representative data are from one of two independent experiments. The values are the means ± S.D. (n = 3). *, p < 0.01, AcLDL labeling versus 10% FBS and methyl--cyclodextrin (MCD) labelings. 22ch, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; RA, 9-cis-retinoic acid.

To further explore the hypothesis that late endosomes/lysosomes represent a preferred source of cholesterol for ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux, we next carried out efflux studies using macrophages from Niemann-Pick C1 mice, which have a defect in trafficking of cholesterol out of late endosomes (32). Cholesterol loading was carried out using [³H]cholesterol/AcLDL. Compared with macrophages from wild type mice, there was a profound decrease in cholesterol efflux to apoA-I in NPC1 macrophages, especially following induction of ABCA1 (Fig. 3A). Measurements of ABCA1 mRNA and protein revealed similar levels of induction in control and NPC1 macrophages (not shown). In earlier studies, Liscum et al. (22) reported that human NPC1 fibroblasts had a moderate defect in cholesterol efflux to small unilamellar vesicles; this was manifested as a delay in cholesterol efflux that became normal following longer incubation periods. However, a time course study revealed a profound 3-4-fold decrease in cholesterol efflux to apoA-I in NPC1 macrophages that was not ameliorated by prolonged incubation (Fig. 3B). If ABCA1 preferentially stimulates cholesterol efflux from late endosomes/lysosomes, then it might be anticipated that there would be a less pronounced defect in cholesterol efflux in NPC1 cells labeled with [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS. Accordingly, using this labeling method, basal cholesterol efflux to apoA-I was similar in wild type and NPC1 cells, and efflux was only moderately decreased in NPC1 macrophages compared with wild type macrophages following LXR/RXR activation (Fig. 3C). Following plasma membrane labeling with [³H]cholesterol/cyclodextrin, there were identical levels of cholesterol efflux in NPC1 and wild type cells (Fig. 3D). These experiments suggest that both lysosomal and plasma membrane cholesterol pools serve as a source of cholesterol for ABCA1 and that the lysosomal pool requires the activity of the NPC1 molecule.

View larger version (44K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3.   ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux in NPC1 and wild type macrophages. NPC1 and wt peritoneal macrophages were [3H]cholesterol labeled by AcLDL (A and B), 10% FBS (C), and cyclodextrin (D) with or without LXR/RXR ligand treatment as described under "Experimental Procedures." After equilibration in DMEM, 0.2% BSA, the cells were incubated with 10 µg/ml of apo-A-I for 4 h (A, C, and D) or different time points (B) in DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the ligands. Cholesterol efflux was expressed as the medium [3H]cholesterol radioactivity as a percentage of total [3H]cholesterol radioactivity (cells plus medium). Representative data are from one of three (A and C) or two (B and D) independent experiments. The values are the means ± S.D. (n = 3). *, p < 0.01, NPC1 versus wt. 22ch, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; RA, 9- cis-retinoic acid.

ABCA1 is thought to act as a phospholipid flippase at the plasma membrane (15, 16). This activity may lead to the formation of phospholipid-apoA-I complexes that secondarily stimulate cholesterol efflux from a distinct region of plasma membrane (15, 17). We measured phospholipid efflux to apoA-I in NPC1 and wt macrophages. Phospholipid efflux was stimulated following activation of LXR/RXR, but there was no defect in phospholipid efflux in NPC1 cells (Fig. 4). This indicates that the primary action of ABCA1, i.e. formation of phospholipid-apoA-I complexes, is intact in NPC1 cells.

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4.   ABCA1-mediated phospholipid efflux in NPC1 and wild type peritoneal macrophages. NPC1 and wt peritoneal macrophages were [3H]choline-labeled (1 µCi/ml of [3H]choline) and treated with or without the LXR/RXR ligands as described under "Experimental Procedures." [3H]Phospholipid efflux was performed by incubation with 10 µg/ml of apoA-I for 4 h in DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the ligands. [3H]phospholipid in the medium and cell lysates was determined following extraction in chloroform:methanol (2:1), and the radioactivity was determined by scintillation counting. [3H]Phospholipid efflux was expressed as the medium radioactivity as a percentage of total radioactivity (cells plus medium). Representative data are from one of two independent experiments. The values are the means ± S.D. (n = 3). 22ch, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; RA, 9-cis-retinoic acid.

Cholesterol efflux to HDL₂ was also significantly decreased in NPC1 cells loaded with [³H]cholesterol/AcLDL (Fig. 5) or by the [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS method (not shown). Because HDL₂ does not interact with ABCA1 (11), this indicates a defect in cholesterol efflux via pathways not mediated by ABCA1. Interestingly, cholesterol efflux via HDL₂ was also induced by LXR/RXR activation (Fig. 5). This suggests the presence of other LXR/RXR target genes in the HDL₂-mediated efflux pathway. Because apolipoprotein E (apoE) was recently identified as an LXR/RXR target (33), we considered the possibility that increased cholesterol efflux might be due to increased apoE synthesis by mouse peritoneal macrophages. However, LXR/RXR activation similarly increased cholesterol efflux to HDL₂ in macrophages from apoE knock-out mice (not shown), eliminating this possibility. The ability of HDL₂ to stimulate increased cholesterol efflux following LXR/RXR activation was also confirmed by cholesterol mass measurements, which indicated primarily an increase in HDL₂ free cholesterol (Fig. 6). SR-BI neutralizing antibodies (34) did not affect cholesterol efflux mediated by HDL₂ in either basal or LXR/RXR-stimulated conditions (not shown).

View larger version (33K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5.   Cholesterol efflux to HDL2 in NPC1 and wild type peritoneal macrophages. NPC1 and wt peritoneal macrophages were [3H]cholesterol AcLDL-labeled and treated with or without the LXR/RXR ligands as described under "Experimental Procedures." Efflux was performed by incubation with 15 µg/ml of HDL2 for 4 h in DMEM, 0.2% BSA with or without the ligands. Cholesterol efflux was expressed as the medium [3H]cholesterol radioactivity as a percentage of total [3H]cholesterol radioactivity (cells plus medium). Representative data are from one of three independent experiments. The values are the means ± S.D. (n = 3). *, p < 0.05, NPC1 versus wt. 22ch, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; RA, 9-cis-retinoic acid.

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6.   Cholesterol efflux from wild type macrophages incubated with HDL2. wt mouse peritoneal macrophages in 6-well plates were [3H]cholesterol/AcLDL-labeled, as described under "Experimental Procedures." After equilibration the cells were incubated with 15 µg/ml HDL2 for 4 h. Cholesterol in the medium was extracted and measured enzymatically. Representative data are from one of two independent experiments. The values are the means ± S.D. (n = 3). *, p < 0.05, 22ch/RA versus 22ch/RA+. 22ch, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; RA, 9-cis-retinoic acid; FC, free cholesterol; CE, cholesteryl ester.

	DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

Our findings suggest that phospholipid-apoA-I complexes formed by ABCA1 initially stimulate cholesterol efflux from regions of the plasma membrane that preferentially utilize cholesterol deposited by modified LDL in late endosomes/lysosomes rather than cholesterol deposited at other intracellular sites. The equilibration of cell surface cholesterol with these intracellular sites requires the activity of the NPC1 molecule and could perhaps also involve trafficking of the ABCA1 molecule itself (35). ABCA1 is markedly less efficient in stimulating cholesterol efflux from cells that have been labeled with [³H]cholesterol, 10% FBS, which probably primarily labels recycling endosomes (29). A profound defect in ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux in NPC1 mutant macrophages may be an important factor explaining our recent observations showing an increase of atherosclerosis in apoE knock-out/NPC1 mutant mice, compared with apoE knock-out control mice.²

Massive cholesteryl ester accumulation in TD macrophages indicates that ABCA1 has an essential role in mediating cholesterol efflux from these cells. It is likely that cholesterol from a variety of sources, including effete red cells and modified forms of LDL, is taken up by macrophages eventuating in delivery to late endosomes/lysosomes. Our studies are consistent with the idea that apoA-I/ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux plays an essential role in removing cholesterol from these intracellular sites. The underlying mechanisms are unclear. Intracellular trafficking of apoA-I has been reported in macrophages, and this process appears to be defective in TD (36). The trafficking of apoA-I has been suggested to have a role in mediating cholesterol efflux (37). Moreover, recent studies using fluorescence confocal microscopy have revealed trafficking of ABCA1 itself between the cell surface and intracellular sites including late endosomes/lysosomes but not recycling endosomes (35). Thus, it is conceivable that apoA-I bound to ABCA1 trafficks directly to late endosomes/lysosomes and somehow mediates cholesterol efflux from these sites. However, it is notable that ABCA1 effectively stimulates efflux of plasma membrane cholesterol, as deduced from a recently developed plasma membrane labeling procedure (30, 31) (Fig. 2) and that this process is normal in NPC1 mutant macrophages (Fig. 3D). Moreover, phospholipid efflux to apoA-I is unaffected in NPC1 mutant cells (Fig. 4), suggesting that trafficking of ABCA1 to late endosomes/lysosomes is not required for formation of phospholipid-apoA-I complexes.

An alternative explanation is that phospholipid-apoA-I complexes are formed by ABCA1 at the cell surface and that these complexes then stimulate cholesterol efflux from specialized regions of the plasma membrane that preferentially obtain cholesterol from intracellular sources derived from late endosomes/lysosomes rather than recycling endosomes. We propose a model in which cholesterol trafficks from late endosomes/lysosomes to the trans-Golgi in a process requiring the activity of NPC1 (38-40). Once cholesterol has arrived in the Golgi, it may be formed into cholesterol/sphingolipid complexes, which give rise to cell surface cholesterol-enriched microdomains or rafts. These plasma membrane domains could then act as a preferential source of cholesterol for ABCA1-mediated efflux. This could explain why mass and isotopic efflux following AcLDL labeling is even greater than following general plasma membrane labeling with cyclodextrin. This model is not necessarily inconsistent with recent data, suggesting that ABCA1 stimulates cholesterol efflux from non-raft regions of the plasma membrane (41), because there could be several different types of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the plasma membrane.

Following entry of lipoprotein cholesterol into late endosomes and lysosomes, NPC1 has an essential role in allowing cholesterol to gain access to the ABCA1 efflux pool (Fig. 3). Liscum et al. (22) reported a delay in cholesterol efflux to unilamellar vesicles in fibroblasts from NPC1 patients. However, with time the efflux became normal. In contrast, the apoA-I stimulated cholesterol efflux in NPC1 mutant mouse macrophages was profoundly reduced at all time points (Fig. 3B). Recently, it has been shown that following labeling of NPC1 mutant Chinese hamster ovary cells with ³H-cholesteryl ester LDL, early time points of cholesterol efflux to cyclodextrin show no or little defect (31, 42). However, after the initial appearance at the plasma membrane and subsequent internalization to an intracellular pool, cholesterol shows delayed trafficking back to the plasma membrane and poor activation of acyl-CoA-cholesterol acyltransferase in (ACAT) NPC1 mutant cells. This has led to the proposal that NPC1 acts on an intracellular pool of cholesterol that is derived from the plasma membrane and is in equilibrium with ACAT. Whether NPC1 is acting in late endosomes/lysosomes (43, 44) or on another pool of cholesterol (31), our studies suggest that this pool of cholesterol represents an important source of cholesterol for ABCA1-stimulated efflux.

Recently, Leventhal et al. (45) have found a defect in basal cholesterol efflux to apoA-I in acid sphingomyelinase-deficient macrophages. These studies suggest that endososomal/lysosomal sphingomyelin accumulation leads to cholesterol sequestration and, thus, defective cholesterol trafficking and efflux. The present findings extend these observations by providing direct evidence that the late endosomal/lysosomal cholesterol pool represents the preferred source of cholesterol for ABCA1-mediated efflux. Also, consistent with the present findings, Kojima et al. (46) recently reported that progesterone suppressed apoA-I-mediated cellular lipid release in human fibroblasts. Progesterone has been reported to sequester cholesterol in lysosomes and block cholesterol trafficking to plasma membrane similar to the effects of the NPC1 mutation (47). However, these earlier studies (45, 46) did not specifically compare cholesterol efflux from different cellular pools under conditions of high ABCA1 activities (i.e. following LXR/RXR activation and marked up-regulation of the ABCA1 (Fig. 1)) and did not specifically evaluate the effect of the NPC1 molecule in ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux as in the present study.

Our findings that NPC1 mutant macrophages have a prominent defect in cholesterol efflux from the late endosomal/lysosomal pool but only a moderate decrease in efflux from recycling endosomal pool (Fig. 3, A and C) may explain some earlier in vivo work showing that de novo synthesized cholesterol or cholesterol entering cells through the HDL/SR-BI pathway can be metabolized and excreted normally, whereas LDL-derived cholesterol becomes sequestered in the lysosomal compartment and is metabolically inactive in NPC1 mutant mice (48, 49) and in NPC1 patients (50). Labeling of cholesterol by DMEM, 10% FBS might mimic more closely the trafficking of de novo synthesized cholesterol or cholesterol derived from the HDL/SR-BI pathway, whereas labeling by AcLDL is similar to LDL cholesterol trafficking to lysosomes.

The HDL₂-mediated cholesterol efflux pathway, distinct from that mediated by ABCA1 (12, 11), was also defective in NPC1 cells. An intriguing, unexpected observation was the finding that macrophage cholesterol efflux to HDL₂ was increased by treatment with LXR/RXR activators (Fig. 5), suggesting a novel efflux process unrelated to ABCA1, SR-BI, or apoE. The mechanism of HDL₂-mediated cholesterol efflux appears quite distinct from apoA-I-mediated cholesterol efflux. Thus, apoA-I binds and interacts with ABCA1 to mediate cholesterol efflux, whereas HDL₂ is inactive in this regard (11). HDL can stimulate cholesterol efflux by interacting with SR-BI (13), but this pathway does not appear to be very active in mouse peritoneal macrophages,³ and SR-BI neutralizing antibodies had no effect on the LXR/RXR-induced cholesterol efflux to HDL₂. These findings suggest that there is a novel molecular target of LXR/RXR activation in the cholesterol efflux pathway to HDL₂. This may well have physiological importance because differences in overall HDL levels between different subjects, such as male/female differences, are primarily due to different HDL₂ levels, whereas HDL₃ levels are relatively constant in the population (51).

	FOOTNOTES

^* This work was supported by Specialized Center of Research in Atherosclerosis Grant HL-56984 (to A. R. T. and I. T) from the NHLBI, National Institutes of Health, and research grants from the Parshegian Foundation (to A. R. T) and Berlex Biosciences (to I. T.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

These authors made equal contributions to the work.

^§ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Div. of Molecular Medicine, Dept. of Medicine, Columbia University, 603 W. 168^th St., New York, NY 10032. Tel.: 212-305-9418; Fax: 212-305-5052; E-mail: art1@columbia.edu.

Published, JBC Papers in Press, September 14, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M107938200

² N. Sharma, G. Kuriakose, D. Zhang, I. Tabas, R. J. Deckelbaum, A. R. Tall, and C. L. Welch, submitted for publication.

³ Y. Sun and A. Tall, unpublished data.

	ABBREVIATIONS

The abbreviations used are: TD, Tangier disease; ABCA1, ATP-binding cassette transport A1; AcLDL, acetyl low density lipoprotein; apoA-I, apolipoprotein A-I; apoE, apolipoprotein E; HDL, high density lipoprotein; LXR, liver X receptor; RXR, retinoid X receptor; NPC1, Niemann-Pick C1; SR-BI, Scavenger receptor class B type I; FBS, fetal bovine serum; PIPES, 1,4-piperazinediethanesulfonic acid; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; wt, wild type; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; BSA, bovine serum albumin.

	REFERENCES

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