JBC Anatrace, Inc.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

Originally published In Press as doi:10.1074/jbc.M201338200 on July 11, 2002

J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 277, Issue 37, 33943-33949, September 13, 2002
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
277/37/33943    most recent
M201338200v1
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Nishino, T.
Right arrow Articles by Domin, J.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Nishino, T.
Right arrow Articles by Domin, J.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?

Elevated Akt Phosphorylation as an Indicator of Renal Tubular Epithelial Cell Stress*

Toshihiko Nishino, Charles D. Pusey, and Jan DominDagger

From the Renal Section, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London W12 ONN, United Kingdom

Received for publication, February 8, 2002, and in revised form, July 8, 2002

    ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Characterization of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase-signaling pathway in a human renal tubular epithelial cell (TEC) line HKC-8 revealed high levels of Akt phosphorylation in serum-starved cultures. In contrast to Erk1/2, little additional phosphorylation of Akt was observed after cytokine or serum stimulation. Replacement of the conditioned medium attenuated Akt phosphorylation such that 90 min after the addition of warmed serum-free media, Akt phosphorylation had fallen sufficiently to allow an epidermal growth factor-stimulated increase to be detected readily. Although the mechanism by which the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway is activated in serum-starved TEC is unknown, the mediator responsible is secreted from these cells. Thus, conditioned media removed from a dish of quiescent TECs stimulated Akt phosphorylation in washed TEC cultures within 10 min. Biochemical characterization of the bioactive agent identified a heat labile factor of small apparent molecular mass. The basal level of Akt phosphorylation observed in serum-starved cultures was inhibited by wortmannin at concentrations that demonstrated its dependence on 3-phosphoinositide synthesis (IC50 = 8 nM). Regular removal of conditioned media from TEC cultures and its replacement with serum free media resulted in a sustained attenuation of Akt phosphorylation. Interestingly, after 5 days of this treatment, washed TEC cultures contained a greater number of viable cells than cultures maintained in conditioned media throughout. This observation was not explained by a difference in the rate of DNA synthesis. Instead, the number of cells undergoing apoptosis increased markedly in the unwashed cultures. Consequently, we propose that in HKC-8 cells Akt phosphorylation is up-regulated in an effort to minimize cell death. This stress-activated response is initiated by a factor secreted into the conditioned medium that stimulates the phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling pathway.

    INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Loss of renal tubular epithelial cell (TEC)1 function and atrophy of tubular architecture is a common feature of acute and chronic renal disease. Ischemia and cytotoxic agents that permeate the glomerular filtration mechanism damage these cells directly. In many forms of chronic renal disease, perturbation of the glomerular architecture results in potentially toxic agents entering the interstitium and mediating the injury. In both forms of disease, a series of common pathogenic processes are initiated, resulting in epithelial cell death and the loss of renal function. Consequently, damage to the interstitium is widely regarded as the most accurate prognostic indicator of renal failure (1, 2).

Serum deprivation and exposure to noxious agents such as oxidants, ionizing radiation, and alkylating agents have direct effects upon mammalian gene expression and cell proliferation (3). The resultant cellular response depends upon the duration and intensity of the exposure. Cells can enter a quiescent state to limit metabolic activity, mechanisms to initiate DNA repair and mitogenesis may be stimulated, or cells can undergo cell death by necrosis or apoptosis. Under such circumstances, decisions regarding cell cycle progression and initiation of transcriptional activity need to be made that require activation of intracellular signaling pathways. Until recently, the identity of these signaling events remained unclear. However, it is now accepted that exposure to cytotoxic agents evokes ligand-independent activation of many receptors including G-protein-coupled receptors for lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) (4) and angiotensin II (5), cytokines such as transforming growth factor beta 1 (6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha  (7), and growth factors such as EGF and platelet-derived growth factor (8, 9). In this way, a spectrum of intracellular effectors are activated in a manner analogous to that observed after ligand addition.

Of these signaling events, the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) activity has attracted particular attention. In mammals, PI3K is a large enzyme family containing eight human catalytic subunits (10). PI3K activity is increased after stimulation by a wide variety of chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors. Largely through the use of the pharmacological inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002, PI3K has been shown to play a critical role in cell proliferation and survival (11). The major 3-phosphoinositide products are PtdIns 3-P, PtdIns (3,4)P2, and PtdIns (3,4,5)P3 (12). Synthesis of PtdIns 3-P is constitutive, but PtdIns (3,4)P2 and PtdIns (3,4,5)P3 are dramatically elevated after ligand stimulation. This reflects their greater significance in receptor-mediated signal transduction. Identity of downstream targets for these 3-phosphoinositides remained unclear for many years until the identification of the serine threonine protein kinases Akt and phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (13). The protooncogene c-Akt (also termed protein kinase B) was originally implicated in the PI3K-signaling pathway downstream of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor (14). After cell stimulation, the pleckstrin homology domain within Akt binds PtdIns (3,4,5)P3, allowing its translocation to the plasma membrane, where it becomes phosphorylated on residues Thr-308 and Ser-473. Phosphorylation of Thr-308 is mediated by the 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase (PDK-1), but the identity of the kinase that phosphorylates residue Ser-473 remains controversial. Phosphorylation of Akt is now widely used to identify activation of the PI3K-signaling pathway. Akt promotes cell survival in part by phosphorylating and inhibiting several proteins involved in promoting apoptosis (15).

Although the anti-apoptotic role of the PI3K/Akt pathway is widely acknowledged, few studies demonstrate increased levels of Akt phosphorylation under conditions where cell viability has been compromised. This is somewhat surprising given that activation of this signaling pathway might be expected in response to stress and cell damage. Indeed, inactivation and dephosphorylation of Akt has been described after hyperosmotic stress (16). In this study we investigate the significance of markedly elevated levels of Akt phosphorylation found in serum-starved cultures of the renal TEC line HKC-8. We investigate whether this increased Akt phosphorylation correlates with alterations in either cell viability or proliferation.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Cell Culture-- Stock cultures of the TEC line HKC-8 cells were generous gifts from Dr. L. Racusen, Dept. of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD. They were derived from human proximal tubule, and they have been extensively characterized (17). Cells were passaged every 3-4 days in 90-mm dishes (Nunc) using DMEM-F-12 supplemented with 10% FBS, insulin-transferrin-sodium selenite media supplement (Sigma), 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 µg/ml streptomycin (Invitrogen). Cultures were incubated in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2, 95% air at 37 °C. For experimental use, cells were switched to serum-free DMEM-F-12. After 16 h, cultures were confluent and quiescent. Cell viability was assessed by trypan blue staining and quantifying dye exclusion.

Preparation of Cell Lysates-- Confluent HKC-8 cell cultures, treated in the absence or presence of various cytokines at 37 °C were lysed at 4 °C using 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.6), 5 mM EDTA, 50 mM NaCl, 30 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 50 mM NaF, 100 µM Na3VO4, 1% Triton-X100, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 1 µg/ml pepstatin, 2 µg/ml aprotinin, 5 µg/ml leupeptin, and 5 µg/ml antipain (lysis buffer). Lysates were clarified by centrifugation (13,000 × g, 20 min), and the supernatants were transferred to a fresh tube, extracted with 2× sample buffer (200 mM Tris/HCl, 6% SDS, 2 mM EDTA, 4% 2-mercaptoethanol, 10% glycerol (pH 6.8)), and fractionated by SDS-PAGE.

In Vitro Kinase Assay-- Lysates were incubated with agarose-linked anti-Akt antibody (Akt1G1, Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.) for 4 h at 4 °C. The resultant immune complexes were isolated by centrifugation and washed twice with ice-cold lysis buffer then kinase buffer (25 mM Tris (pH 7.5), 5 mM beta -glycerol phosphate, 2 mM dithiothreitol, 0.1 mM Na3VO4, 10 mM MgCl2). The pellet was re-suspended in 40 µl of kinase buffer containing 200 µM ATP and 1 µg of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) fusion protein (GSK-3alpha /beta cross-tide corresponding to residues surrounding GSK-3alpha /beta (Ser-21/Ser-9) fused to paramyosin) (Cell Signaling Technology), and the sample was incubated for 30 min at 30 °C. Reactions were terminated with 40 µl of 2× sample buffer and extracted by boiling for 5 min.

Size Exclusion Chromatography-- Confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells were maintained for 2 days in DMEM-F-12. Conditioned media was removed, clarified by centrifugation for 20 min at 14,000 × g, and concentrated 10-fold by ultrafiltration using Centricon YM-3 cartridges (Millipore, UK) at 4 °C. An aliquot of the supernatant was applied to a Sephadex G-75 column maintained at 4 °C and eluted with 50 mM Tris, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl at 0.2 ml/min. Fractions (2 ml) were collected and tested for their ability to stimulate Akt phosphorylation in HKC-8 cultures previously washed with DMEM 2 h before challenge. After 10 min, lysates were prepared and extracted with 2× sample buffer.

Western Blotting-- Proteins were electroporated onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes that were then blocked with 5% nonfat dried milk in Tris-buffered saline containing 0.05% Tween 20 (pH 7.6) (TBST). These were incubated with antibody in TBST containing 3% nonfat milk overnight at 4 °C. Phosphorylated Akt was detected with antibody directed against phospho-Ser-473 (Cell Signaling Technology). Phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha /beta fusion protein was detected with anti-phospho glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha /beta Ser-21/Ser-9 antibody (Cell Signaling Technology). Antibody against phosphorylated Erk1/2 was obtained from Promega, UK Ltd. Immunoreactive proteins were detected using anti-rabbit coupled HRP (Amersham Biosciences) and visualized by ECL (Amersham Biosciences).

MTT Assay-- Cultures were washed with warmed phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and incubated in 1.5 ml of PBS containing MTT (0.5 mg/ml) for 10 min at 37 °C. An equivalent volume of isopropanol was then added, and incubation was continued for a further 30 min at room temperature. Aliquots were removed, and their absorbance was read spectrophotometrically at 550 nm.

Detection of Apoptosis-- Apoptosis was quantified using the TdT-FragEL DNA fragmentation detection kit (Oncogene). HKC-8 cells were plated on 13-mm glass coverslips, and at selected times they were fixed overnight with 4% paraformaldehyde at 4 °C and permeabilized for 5 min at room temperature with 0.2% Triton X-100 in phosphate-buffered saline. After a 20-min equilibration in TdT buffer, samples were labeled with TdT reaction mix for 90 min at 37 °C in a humidified chamber. Reactions were terminated with stop solution and rinsed in Tris-buffered saline. Once blocked, samples were incubated with detection reagent and visualized with 3,3'-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride solution over 10-15 min. Preparations were then rinsed, counterstained with methyl green, and visualized using cooled CCD camera. Six fields were randomly chosen, and the number of TdT-positive cells present in each preparation was expressed as a percentage of the total number of nuclei.

BrdUrd Incorporation-- Cells plated on 13-mm glass coverslips were incubated with 100 µM BrdUrd for 4 h in humidified 95% air, 5% CO2 at 37 °C. After fixing with Carnoy's solution (60% ethanol, 30% chloroform, 10% glacial acetic acid), cells were permeabilized for 5 min with 0.2% Triton X-100. They were rinsed and immersed in 1 M HCl (60 °C, 5 min). Normal sheep serum (20%) was used to block nonspecific binding sites over a 30-min incubation at room temperature. Anti-BrdUrd antibody (Dako, 1:50 dilution) was then added in 3% bovine serum albumin for a further 2 h followed by peroxidase-labeled sheep anti-mouse secondary antibody (1:200) for 45 min at room temperature. Once rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline, slides were developed in 3,3'-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride, counterstained with eosin and dehydrated in graded alcohol and xylene. BrdUrd-labeled cells were counted in 6 representative fields, and the number is expressed as a percentage of the total cell number.

    RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Serum Starved HKC-8 Cells Have High Basal Akt Phosphorylation-- Serum deprivation after attainment of confluence is a widely used treatment to obtain cultures in a quiescent state (18). Under these conditions, cells exit the cell cycle and enter a state of Go. The addition of serum, cytokines, or growth factors allows synchronous entry into the cell cycle, and a unified response is obtained. In contrast to numerous cell types previously examined, quiescent HKC-8 cells demonstrated a high level of Akt phosphorylation (Fig. 1A). Consequently, after treatment with FBS or a variety of cytokines, no additional Akt phosphorylation was observed. This was not due to a failure of the treatment regimen because quiescent cultures had low levels of phosphorylated Erk1/2 (Fig. 1B), and phosphorylation of Erk1/2 increased dramatically after stimulation with serum, bradykinin, LPA, or EGF. In contrast, vasopressin and angiotensin II evoked a more modest stimulation.


View larger version (65K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 1.   Constitutively elevated levels of phosphorylated Akt are found in quiescent HKC-8 cells. Confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells were rendered quiescent after a 48-h incubation in serum-free DMEM-F-12 media. Cultures were then washed and incubated with media containing serum (FBS) or various cytokines for 10 min at 37 °C. These were vasopressin (VP, 10 nM), bradykinin (BK, 20 nM), LPA (1 µg/ml), angiotensin II (ATII, 100 nM), and EGF (100 nM). Lysates were then prepared, extracted, and fractionated by SDS-PAGE. Proteins were electroporated onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes and Western-blotted with either anti-phospho (Ser-473)-Akt antibody (panel A) or anti-phospho-Erk1/2 antibody (panel B). Quiescent cultures of Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts and HKC-8 cells were incubated in the absence or presence of 10% FBS for 10 min at 37 °C. Akt was isolated from the lysates and used for in vitro protein kinase assay using recombinant glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3alpha /beta cross-tide fusion protein as substrate (panel C), or lysates were extracted, fractionated by SDS-PAGE, and Western-blotted with anti-phospho (Ser-473)-Akt antibody (panel D) or anti-Akt antibody (panel E).

We also examined if elevated Akt phosphorylation in quiescent cultures of HKC-8 cells corresponded to constitutively increased Akt enzyme activity. Lysates were prepared from control and serum-stimulated cultures of murine Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts and HKC-8 cells. Akt isolated from lysates of FBS-stimulated Swiss 3T3 cells produced greater phosphorylation of the glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha /beta cross-tide substrate than did the enzyme obtained from control lysates (Fig. 1C). A phosphorylated doublet was produced due to the presence of partially degraded paramyosin that occurs during large scale bacterial expression of the fusion protein.2 Furthermore, Akt phosphorylated at Ser-473 was only evident in FBS-stimulated Swiss 3T3 lysates (Fig. 1D). In contrast, Akt isolated from lysates of HKC-8 cells incubated in the absence or presence of serum revealed equivalent protein kinase activity (Fig. 1C). Western blotting demonstrated that Akt isolated from control and serum stimulated lysates were phosphorylated on Ser-473 similarly (Fig. 1D). Finally, Western blotting of total Akt confirmed an equivalent enzyme expression in stimulated and control lysates (Fig. 1E). The HKC-8 cells used throughout this study were mycoplasma-negative (data not shown), thereby eliminating contamination with this bacterium as a possible explanation for our findings.

A Soluble Factor Mediates Akt Phosphorylation-- To establish if HKC-8 cells were producing a factor to stimulate Akt phosphorylation in an autocrine manner, cells were washed, and the conditioned media was replaced with warmed, fresh serum-free media. After media replacement, Akt phosphorylation decreased in a time-dependent manner (Fig. 2). Within 3 h, Akt phosphorylation became markedly attenuated (<20% control). This effect was maintained over 12 h, after which time phosphorylation increased once again. Basal levels of Akt phosphorylation were eventually restored after 48 h.


View larger version (22K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 2.   Media replacement attenuates Akt phosphorylation. Confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells were incubated in serum-free DMEM-F-12 for 24 h. These were then washed with fresh media, and the incubation was continued at 37 °C. At the times indicated, cell lysates were prepared. After fractionation by SDS-PAGE and transfer to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes, proteins were Western-blotted with anti-phospho (p) (Ser-473)-Akt antibody. Data were quantified by scanning densitometry.

To exclude the possibility that media replacement blocks Akt phosphorylation in HKC-8 cells, quiescent cultures were washed with DMEM, and 90 min later, treated with EGF for various times. In contrast to quiescent cultures that were unwashed (control), Akt phosphorylation in washed cells increased dramatically after EGF addition (Fig. 3, upper panels). This increase became maximal by 3 min and was maintained for more than 1 h. In contrast, the magnitude and kinetics of Erk1/2 phosphorylation were identical in washed and control cultures after EGF stimulation (Fig. 3, middle panels). Phosphorylation of Erk1/2 peaked after 3 min, returning to basal levels within 1 h.


View larger version (51K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 3.   HKC-8 cell-conditioned media contains a factor that stimulates Akt phosphorylation. Confluent and quiescent cultures of HKC-8 cells were washed with DMEM-F-12 and incubated at 37 °C for 90 min. Control cultures remained unwashed. After this time, both sets of cultures were stimulated with EGF (100 nM) for various times, and cell lysates then prepared. Proteins were extracted, fractionated by SDS-PAGE, and Western-blotted with either anti-phospho (p)-Akt antibody (upper panels) or anti-ERK1/2 antibody (middle panels). Quiescent and confluent cultures were also washed with DMEM-F-12 and, after 90 min, stimulated for 10 min with either LPA (1 µg/ml) or EGF (100 nM) or incubated with condition media (CM) obtained from a dish of confluent and quiescent HKC-8 cells. Lysates were prepared, and after fractionation by SDS-PAGE, proteins were Western-blotted with either anti-phospho-Akt or anti-phospho-Erk1/2 antibody (lower panels).

Cultures of washed HKC-8 cells were also incubated with either LPA (1 µg/ml), EGF (100 nM), or conditioned medium obtained from a parallel dish of quiescent cells for 10 min at 37 °C. Lysates were prepared, and proteins were fractionated by SDS-PAGE then Western-blotted with anti-phospho-Akt and anti-phospho-Erk1/2 antibody. LPA had little effect on Akt phosphorylation, although it markedly elevated Erk1/2 phosphorylation. EGF stimulated phosphorylation of both Akt and Erk1/2. In contrast, conditioned media only stimulated the phosphorylation of Akt (Fig. 3, lower panels).

Characterization of the Factor Present in HKC-8-conditioned Medium-- Aliquots of HKC-8 cell-conditioned media were incubated at 60 °C for 15 min. Their ability to stimulate Akt phosphorylation was examined using confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells that were washed 2 h previously with warmed DMEM. Heating markedly attenuated the ability of conditioned media to stimulate Akt phosphorylation in these cultures (Fig. 4, upper panel). Fractionation of conditioned media by size exclusion chromatography revealed two peaks of activity able to induce Akt phosphorylation (Fig. 4, lower panel). The first peak eluted in the void volume, and the second eluted with an apparent molecular mass smaller than the 25-kDa chymotrypsinogen A standard. It is currently unclear if the activity present in the void volume represents a high molecular mass protein or a complex containing the smaller molecular mass protein. Further purification was precluded due to loss of biological activity upon prolonged handling.


View larger version (26K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 4.   Characterization of the factor produced by HKC-8 cells that stimulates Akt phosphorylation. Confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells were washed and incubated with DMEM-F-12 for 3 days. The resultant conditioned medium was removed, and aliquots were heated for 15 min at 60 °C. Heated and non-heated media were then examined for their ability to stimulate Akt phosphorylation in confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells that were washed with warmed DMEM-F-12 2 h earlier (upper panel). Aliquots of conditioned media were also fractionated by gel filtration chromatography to determine the apparent molecular mass of the bioactive agent (lower panel). Samples were applied to Sephadex G-75 column eluted with 50 mM Tris (pH 7.4), 100 mM NaCl at 0.2 ml/min. Washed cultures of HKC-8 cells were incubated with media containing aliquots of each fraction (1 ml) for 10 min. Lysates were extracted, fractionated by SDS-PAGE, and Western-blotted with anti-phospho (p)-Akt antibody. The degree of Akt phosphorylation evoked was quantified as optical density units (OD) by scanning laser densitometry of autoradiographs. The absorbance profile (280 nm) obtained upon column elution is illustrated, and the elution volume of 67-kDa ovalbumin (Ov) and 25-kDa chymotrypsinogen A (Ct) standards is shown by arrows. Vo and Vt represent the void volume and total volume, respectively.

3-Phosphoinositide Production Is Responsible for Akt Phosphorylation in Serum-starved Cultures-- Treatment of quiescent cultures with the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin revealed a dose-dependent inhibition of Akt phosphorylation with an IC50 of 8 nM and complete attenuation by 30 nM (Fig. 5). The role of the PI3K/Akt pathway in mediating the viability of HKC-8 cells was demonstrated by their treatment with the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 (20 µM). Cell number was quantified by trypan blue exclusion, whereas cell viability was assessed by MTT assay (Fig. 6). With both assays a significant difference was revealed after one day of LY294002 treatment, and this difference became greater with time. Inhibition of PI3K activity markedly attenuated the proliferation of HKC-8 cells, resulting in their death upon prolonged exposure (>3 days).


View larger version (25K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 5.   Constitutive Akt phosphorylation is dependent upon 3-phosphoinositide synthesis. Quiescent and confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells were incubated in the absence or presence of various concentrations of wortmannin for 20 min. At the end of this time, lysates were prepared, extracted, and fractionated by SDS-PAGE. After transfer onto polyvinylidene difluoride, proteins were Western-blotted with anti-phospho-Akt antibody. Data were quantified by scanning densitometry. The signal was linear over the range examined.


View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 6.   Inhibition of PI3K activity by LY294002 induces cell death. Confluent cultures of HKC-8 cells were incubated in the absence (open symbols) or presence (closed symbols) of LY294002 (20 µM). At 24-h intervals, viable cells were visualized after Trypan blue exclusion and counted (upper panel). Cell viability was quantified using a MTT assay (lower panel). The metabolism of the MTT substrate was assessed spectrophotometrically measuring absorbance (Abs) at 550 nm.

Replacement of Conditioned Media Improves Cell Viability-- Although we had shown that removal of conditioned media transiently decreased the level of Akt phosphorylation in HKC-8 cells, we wondered if a regimen of repeated media change would produce a sustained decrease in Akt phosphorylation. To this end, conditioned media was removed and replaced with warmed serum-free DMEM every 12 h. Conditioned media remained on control cultures throughout. Fig. 7 shows that regular media exchange produced a sustained attenuation of Akt phosphorylation that became maximal after 4 days of treatment compared with the control cultures. To exclude the possibility that this procedure reduced expression of the Akt enzyme, total Akt levels were determined by Western blotting. These were unaltered in washed and control cultures over the entire duration of the experiment.


View larger version (46K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 7.   Regular media replacement maintains attenuated Akt phosphorylation. Confluent and quiescent cultures of HKC-8 cells were washed with DMEM-F-12 and incubated at 37 °C. At 12-h intervals, cultures were washed twice and returned to the incubator. Control cultures remained unwashed. Daily representative cultures were lysed, fractionated by SDS-PAGE, and Western-blotted with antibody to phosphorylated (p-) Akt (upper panel) and total Akt (lower panel).

Having established that regular replacement of conditioned media suppressed the high basal level of Akt phosphorylation in quiescent cultures, we examined its implications for cell viability. Fig. 8, upper panel, shows that initially no effect on cell number was observed. However, after day 4 the number of cells maintained in conditioned media reached a plateau and later decreased. In contrast, cells that were washed regularly continued to increase in number, reaching a higher plateau at day 6. The results of the MTT assay used to assess cell viability revealed a difference by day 3 (Fig. 8, lower panel). Cultures where media was replaced were more viable than those that remained in conditioned media. The decrease in cell viability exhibited by control cultures after day 3 correlated with the plateau in their cell number observed at day 4 (Fig. 8, upper panel).


View larger version (15K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 8.   Regular media replacement improves the viability of quiescent HKC-8 cells. Cultures of quiescent HKC-8 cells were washed with warmed DMEM-F-12 and incubated at 37 °C. Media were regularly replaced every 12 h (open symbols). Control cultures remained unwashed (closed symbols). Every 24 h, the number of viable cells was determined after Trypan blue exclusion (upper panel). Cell viability was assessed by MTT assay. Abs, absorbance.

DNA synthesis was also quantified by BrdUrd incorporation (Fig. 9). Although the proportion of BrdUrd-labeled cells decreased slightly over the study period, there was no significant difference between those cultures that were washed and those left in conditioned media. In an attempt to explain the difference in cell number between the two treatments, we assessed the degree of apoptotic cell death in each culture. Fig. 10 shows that during the first 3 days, the number of terminal dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL)-positive cells was low (<5%) in both washed cultures and those maintained in conditioned media. However, after day 4, the number of apoptotic cells in cultures maintained in conditioned media increased dramatically (46% at 8 days). In contrast, the number of apoptotic HKC-8 cells in washed cultures remained negligible during this time.


View larger version (59K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 9.   Media replacement does not alter cell proliferation. HKC-8 cells were plated onto glass coverslips within a 24-well tissue culture plate. Once confluent, cells were washed with DMEM-F-12 and incubated at 37 °C. Every 12 h, cultures were washed with fresh media, and the incubation was continued (open symbols). Control cultures remained untreated (closed symbols). BrdUrd was added to selected coverslips that were removed after 4 h, fixed, and treated to visualize BrdUrd incorporation. Data show BrdUrd-positive cells expressed as the percentage of the total cell number visualized by eosin counter stain (n = 6). Representative fields obtained at the beginning and end of the experiment are illustrated.


View larger version (43K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 10.   Conditioned media increases HKC-8 apoptotic cell death. HKC-8 cells were grown on 13-mm glass coverslips in 24-well plates. Once confluent and quiescent, cultures were washed with DMEM-F-12, and incubation was continued at 37 °C. Every 12 h, cultures were washed with fresh media (open symbols). Control cultures remained unwashed (closed symbols). Daily, representative cultures were fixed in paraformaldehyde, permeabilized, and labeled with TdT. Cells were counterstained with methyl green and visualized. Fields were randomly chosen, and TdT-positive cells were counted and expressed as a percentage of the total cell number (n = 6). Representative fields obtained at the beginning and end of the experiment are illustrated. TUNEL, terminal dUTP nick-end labeling.


    DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

The results of this study reveal an inverse correlation between the basal level of Akt phosphorylation and long term viability of HKC-8 cells under serum-free conditions. Originally, the degree of Akt phosphorylation observed in serum-starved cultures precluded further increase after serum or cytokine stimulation (19, 11). This effect was clearly selective for Akt since phosphorylation of Erk1/2 was negligible in quiescent cultures and increased dramatically after ligand addition (Fig. 1).

It soon became clear that the factor responsible for Akt phosphorylation was secreted into the conditioned media since its replacement with fresh media markedly attenuated this activity (Fig. 2). Although the identity of this factor remains elusive, we have demonstrated that it is heat-labile, and it can be isolated by biochemical fractionation (Fig. 4). Chemokines and cytokines including heparin binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, transforming growth factor-alpha , acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor, endothelin-1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and platelet-derived growth factor-BB have all been previously proposed to act as autocrine mediators of this cell type (20-22). Additional candidates included LPA and EGF since LPA is a major mitogenic component of serum, and EGF is very highly expressed by renal tubular cells (23, 24). However, neither is involved in this model since the ability of LPA and EGF to stimulate phosphorylation of Akt and Erk1/2 both differ from that of the conditioned media (Fig. 3). Biochemical analysis revealed the factor to be heat-labile and have an apparent molecular mass less than 25 kDa (Fig. 4). In addition, the detection of activity eluting in the void volume implies that conditioned media either contains two factors able to stimulate the PI3K pathway or that the smaller molecule may aggregate or bind larger proteins.

The sensitivity of Akt phosphorylation in HKC-8 cells to wortmannin treatment (IC50 = 8 nM) confirmed the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase enzyme activity and excluded the isozyme PI3K-C2alpha , the catalytic activity of which is more refractory to this inhibitor (25). Pharmacological attenuation of 3-phosphoinositide synthesis markedly inhibited HKC-8 cell viability in culture (Fig. 6). This is consistent with the results of numerous studies documenting the anti-apoptotic effects of PI3K enzyme activity (26, 27). However, such data demonstrate a cellular dependence for 3-phosphoinositides and not necessarily their role as anti-apoptotic mediators.

Regular removal of conditioned media was also able to maintain a markedly attenuated phosphorylation of the Akt enzyme (Fig. 7). However, in contrast to the use of LY294002, Akt phosphorylation was not completely abolished. Consequently, if the autocrine factor were mitogenic, then cells remaining in conditioned media would remain more viable than those cultures where the conditioned media was continuously replaced and Akt phosphorylation suppressed. However, if this factor were cytotoxic, phosphorylation of Akt might be an attempt to preserve cell viability. Data presented in Figs. 7 and 9 demonstrated markedly increased apoptotic cell death in those cultures that remained in conditioned media. We cannot exclude the possibility that HKC-8 cells also produce growth factors to support their viability during periods of serum depravation, although increased Erk1/2 phosphorylation was not observed (Figs. 1 and 3). We conclude that if the conditioned media remains on these cultures, an accumulation of cytotoxic factors or metabolites occurs, and the cells respond by activating the PI3K/Akt pathway. Consequently, the high level of Akt phosphorylation observed in serum-starved cultures of HKC-8 cells is indicative of cell stress and suggests that it is an attempt to minimize the cell damage and death that will later ensue. A role of Akt phosphorylation in cell proliferation cannot be supported in this model since the rate of DNA synthesis in both sets of cultures remained unaltered.

Other examples of stress-mediated activation of the PI3K pathway include mechanical stress (28, 29), UV irradiation (30), and treatment with cytotoxic agents such as H2O2 (31, 32). It is becoming clear that under such conditions, proliferative signaling mechanisms become activated in an attempt to sustain cell number. H2O2 treatment leads to ligand-independent phosphorylation and activation of the ErbB receptor family, thereby activating the PI3K and Erk/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways (33). Induction of cell death by use of PI3K antagonists has demonstrated that 3-phosphoinositide synthesis must be maintained to ensure cell viability (Ref. 26 and Fig. 5). This is supported by the role of the PI3K pathway in regulating the activity of the Bcl-2 protein family. Akt phosphorylates BAD to relieve its inhibitory effect on Bcl-2 enzyme activity (27). Akt also inhibits the stress-activated kinase SEK1 and its substrate, JNK1 (34). Cells in which constitutively active Akt is overexpressed and cells heterozygous for the 3-phosphatase PTEN show reduced levels of cell death (35, 36).

Because epithelial cells line the renal tubules in situ they are continually exposed to shear stress and alterations in the ionic content of the extracellular medium at their apical surface. The marked up-regulation of Akt phosphorylation observed under conditions of low serum may reflect the mechanism of their sustained viability in such an environment. Examination of another human epithelial cell line, HK2, also revealed increased Akt phosphorylation in quiescent cultures. However, in contrast to HKC-8 cells, 10% FBS was able to increase Akt phosphorylation further (data not shown). Possibly HKC-8 cells demonstrate a greater sensitivity to noxious stimuli and respond by an accentuated activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. Marked Akt phosphorylation in quiescent cultures has also been shown with other cell lines, although the significance of this observation is rarely noted (37, 38). In addition to cytokine receptor-driven anti-apoptotic mechanisms, the role of cell adhesion to extracellular matrix through integrin receptors should also be considered (39). The focal adhesion kinase FAK has recently been shown to suppress chemically induced apoptosis of TEC (40). Phosphorylation of FAK on Tyr-397 creates a consensus motif for binding of the SH2 domain of the class IA PI3K adaptor p85. This association plays a role in extracellular matrix-mediated cell survival that involves activation of Akt (41).

Although we have demonstrated that Akt phosphorylation is dependent upon 3-phosphoinositide synthesis, the enzyme responsible and the mechanism of its activation remains elusive. In contrast to the mitogen-activated protein kinase enzyme family, the identification of PI3K isozymes involved in stress-mediated responses has received little attention. The class IB phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase gamma  was shown to mediate shear stress-dependent activation of JNK in endothelial cells (42). Oxidative stress of murine fibroblasts causes accumulation of PtdIns (3,4)P2, whereas osmotic stress increased PtdIns (3,4)P2 and PtdIns (3,4,5)P3 (43). Interestingly, in that study the production of each 3-phosphoinositide correlated poorly with Akt and p70S6 kinase phosphorylation. In yeast, hyperosmotic stress stimulates the production of PtdIns (3,5)P2, although in mammalian cells, it is generated after hypo-osmotic shock (44). Like PtdIns (3,4)P2 and PtdIns (3,4,5)P3, synthesis of PtdIns (3,5)P2 is wortmannin-sensitive (45), but this 3-phosphoinositide has until now only been shown to bind the pleckstrin homology domain of centaurin-beta 2 (46). Consequently, it is unlikely to play a major role in Akt activation.

A more detailed examination of the mechanisms that underlie constitutive Akt phosphorylation in TEC is clearly warranted. Such work will provide important insight into those PI3K isozymes responsible for transducing stress-mediated 3-phosphoinositide production.

    FOOTNOTES

* This study was supported by a project grant from the Wellcome Trust.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

Dagger To whom all correspondence should be addressed: Renal Section, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, Du Cane Road, London W12 ONN, UK. Tel.: 020-8383-2357; Fax: 020-8383-2062; E-mail: j.domin@ic.ac.uk.

Published, JBC Papers in Press, July 11, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M201338200

2 A. McIlwrath (New England Biolabs), personal communication.

    ABBREVIATIONS

The abbreviations used are: TEC, tubular epithelial cells; BrdUrd, bromodeoxyuridine; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; EGF, epidermal growth factor; FBS, fetal bovine serum; LPA, lysophosphatidic acid; MTT, 3,[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PtdIns, phosphatidylinositol; P, P2, and P3, phosphate, diphosphate, and trisphosphate, respectively.

    REFERENCES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

1. Risdon, R. A., Sloper, J. A. C., and Wardener, H. E. (1968) Lancet ii, 363-366
2. Schainuck, L. I., Striker, G. E., Cutler, R. E., and Benditt, E. P. (1970) Hum. Pathol. 1, 631-641[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
3. Li, N., and Karin, M. (2000) Methods Enzymol. 319, 273-279[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
4. Chen, Q., Olashaw, N., and Wu, J. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 28499-28502[Abstract/Free Full Text]
5. Ushio-Fukai, M., Alexander, R. W., Akers, M., Yin, Q., Fujio, Y., Walsh, K., and Griendling, K. K. (1999) J. Biol. Chem. 274, 22699-22704[Abstract/Free Full Text]
6. Ohba, M., Shibanuma, M., Kuroki, T., and Nose, K. (1994) J. Cell Biol. 126, 1079-1088[Abstract/Free Full Text]
7. Meier, B., Radeke, H. H., Selle, S., Younes, M., Sies, H., Resch, K., and Habermehl, G. G. (1989) Biochem. J. 263, 539-545[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
8. Suzuki, K., Kodama, S., and Watanabe, M. (2001) Cancer Res. 61, 5396-5401[Abstract/Free Full Text]
9. Sundaresan, M., Yu, Z. X., Ferrans, V. J., Irani, K., and Finkel, T. (1995) Science 270, 296-299[Abstract/Free Full Text]
10. Domin, J., and Waterfield, M. D. (1997) FEBS Lett. 410, 91-95[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
11. Vanhaesebroeck, B., Leevers, S. J., Ahmadi, K., Timms, J., Katso, R., Driscoll, P. C., Woscholski, R., Parker, P. J., and Waterfield, M. D. (2001) Annu. Rev. Biochem. 70, 535-602[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
12. Leevers, S. J., Vanhaesebroeck, B., and Waterfield, M. D. (1999) Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 11, 219-225[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
13. Vanhaesebroeck, B., and Alessi, D. R. (2000) Biochem. J. 346, 561-576[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
14. Burgering, B. M. T., and Coffer, P. J. (1995) Nature 376, 599-602[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
15. Kim, A. H., Khursigara, G., Sun, X., Franke, T. F., and Chao, M. V. (2001) Mol. Cell. Biol. 21, 893-901[Abstract/Free Full Text]
16. Meier, R., Thelen, M., and Hemmings, B. A. (1998) EMBO J. 17, 7294-7303[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
17. Racusen, L. C., Monteil, C., Sgrignoli, A., Lucskay, M., Marouillat, S., Rhim, J. G., and Morin, J. P. (1997) J. Lab Clin. Med. 129, 318-329[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
18. Rozengurt, E. (1986) Science 234, 161-166[Abstract/Free Full Text]
19. Lawlor, M. A., and Alessi, D. R. (2001) J. Cell Sci. 114, 2903-2910[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
20. Homma, T., Sakai, M., Cheng, H. F., Yasuda, T., Coffey, R. J., Jr., and Harris, R. C. (1995) J. Clin. Invest. 96, 1018-1025[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
21. Burton, C. J., Combe, C., Walls, J., and Harris, K. P. (1999) Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 14, 2628-2633[Abstract/Free Full Text]
22. Kanellis, J., Fraser, S., Katerelos, M., and Power, D. A. (2000) Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 278, 905-915
23. Iglesias, J., Abernethy, V. E., Wang, Z., Lieberthal, W., Koh, J. S., and Levine, J. S. (1999) Am. J. Physiol. 277, F711-F722[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
24. Fisher, D. A., Salido, E. C., and Barajas, L. (1989) Annu. Rev. Physiol 51, 67-80[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
25. Domin, J., Pages, F., Volinia, S., Rittenhouse, S. E., Zvelebil, M. J., Stein, R. C., and Waterfield, M. D. (1997) Biochem. J. 326, 139-147[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
26. Yao, R., and Cooper, G. M. (1995) Science 267, 2003-2006[Abstract/Free Full Text]
27. Datta, S. R., Dudek, H., Tao, X., Masters, S., Fu, H., Gotoh, Y., and Greenberg, M. E. (1997) Cell 91, 231-241[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
28. Dimmeler, S., Fleming, I., Fisslthaler, B., Hermann, C., Busse, R., and Zeiher, A. M. (1999) Nature 399, 601-605[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
29. Dimmeler, S., Assmus, B., Hermann, C., Haendeler, J., and Zeiher, A. M. (1998) Circ. Res. 83, 334-341[Abstract/Free Full Text]
30. Nomura, M., Kaji, A., Ma, W. Y., Zhong, S., Liu, G., Bowden, G. T., Miyamoto, K. I., and Dong, Z. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 25558-25567[Abstract/Free Full Text]
31. Guyton, K. Z., Liu, Y., Gorospe, M., Xu, Q., and Holbrook, N. J. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 4138-4142[Abstract/Free Full Text]
32. Shaw, M., Cohen, P., and Alessi, D. R. (1998) Biochem. J. 336, 241-246[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
33. Knebel, A., Rahmsdorf, H. J., Ullrich, A., and Herrlich, P. (1996) EMBO J. 15, 5314-5325[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
34. Park, H. S., Kim, M. S., Huh, S. H., Park, J., Chung, J., Kang, S. S., and Choi, E. J. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 2573-2578[Abstract/Free Full Text]
35. Thakkar, H., Chen, X., Tyan, F., Gim, S., Robinson, H., Lee, C., Pandey, S. K., Nwokorie, C., Onwudiwe, N., and Srivastava, R. K. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 38361-38369[Abstract/Free Full Text]
36. Di Cristofano, A., Kotsi, P., Peng, Y., Cordon-Cardo, C., Elkon, K., and Pandolfi, P. (1999) Science 285, 2122-2125[Abstract/Free Full Text]
37. Okano, J., Gaslightwala, I., Birnbaum, M. J., Rustgi, A. K., and Nakagawa, H. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 30934-30942[Abstract/Free Full Text]
38. Gustin, J. A., Maehama, T., Dixon, J. E., and Donner, D. B. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 27740-27744[Abstract/Free Full Text]
39. Khwaja, A., Rodriguez-Viciana, P., Wennstrom, S., Warne, P. H., and Downward, J. (1997) EMBO J. 16, 2783-2793[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
40. van de, W. B., Houtepen, F., Huigsloot, M., and Tijdens, I. B. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 36183-36193[Abstract/Free Full Text]
41. Chen, H. C., Appeddu, P. A., Isoda, H., and Guan, J. L. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 26329-26334[Abstract/Free Full Text]
42. Go, Y. M., Park, H., Maland, M. C., Darley-Usmar, V. M., Stoyanov, B., Wetzker, R., and Jo, H. (1998) Am. J. Physiol. 275, H1898-H1904[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
43. Van der Kaay, J., Beck, M., Gray, A., and Downes, C. P. (1999) J. Biol. Chem. 274, 35963-35968[Abstract/Free Full Text]
44. Dove, S. K., Cooke, F. T., Douglas, M. R., Sayers, L. G., Parker, P. J., and Michell, R. H. (1997) Nature 390, 187-192[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
45. Whiteford, C. C., Brearley, C. A., and Ulug, E. T. (1997) Biochem. J. 323, 597-601[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
46. Dowler, S., Currie, R. A., Campbell, D. G., Deak, M., Kular, G., Downes, C. P., and Alessi, D. R. (2000) Biochem. J. 351, 19-31[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]

Copyright © 2002 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.
Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Complore Complore   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati    What's this?


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Cancer Res.Home page
C. Sourbier, V. Lindner, H. Lang, A. Agouni, E. Schordan, S. Danilin, S. Rothhut, D. Jacqmin, J.-J. Helwig, and T. Massfelder
The Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/Akt Pathway: A New Target in Human Renal Cell Carcinoma Therapy.
Cancer Res., May 15, 2006; 66(10): 5130 - 5142.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
277/37/33943    most recent
M201338200v1
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Nishino, T.
Right arrow Articles by Domin, J.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Nishino, T.
Right arrow Articles by Domin, J.
Social Bookmarking