|
Originally published In Press as doi:10.1074/jbc.X200005200 on October 25, 2002
J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 277, Issue 51, 49091-49100, December 20, 2002
REFLECTIONS
A Gold Mine of Fascinating Enzymes: Those Remarkable,
Strictly Anaerobic Bacteria, Methanococcus vannielii and
Clostridium sticklandii
Thressa Campbell
Stadtman
From the Laboratory of Biochemistry, NHLBI, National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-8012
 |
Anaerobic Metabolism Background |
I was fortunate to have had Dr. H. A. Barker as a mentor for
my graduate studies at Berkeley. He had been trained by famous microbiologists from the Delft School of Microbiology, and he instilled
in his students a deep interest in the metabolism of anaerobic
microorganisms. Members of the Delft School had found that the
microbial decomposition of various compounds under anaerobic conditions
sometimes involved unusual chemical reactions that were amenable to
detailed study because the responsible catalysts were present in
exaggerated amounts or subsequent rate-limiting steps allowed
intermediates to accumulate. By studying under Barker, who had worked
with C. B. van Niel in Pacific Grove and later with A. J. Kluyver in
Delft, I became an indirect descendent of the Delft microbiologists.
For my thesis problem, I chose to work on the biosynthesis of methane,
an area of research that I knew to be of considerable interest to
Barker. Formate, acetate, and various fatty acids were added to simple
mineral salts media for selection of organisms able to utilize these
substrates for methane production. I used soil samples as inocula that
I had dug from San Francisco Bay mud flats. At that time, the bay was
heavily contaminated, and the mud flats reeked of hydrogen sulfide at
low tide, a clear indication of anaerobic conditions. Microorganisms
that grew on acetate, propionate, and short chain fatty acids were
obtained, and these were studied using 14C-labeled
substrates to determine the source of methane (1). Particularly
interesting was the unexpected finding that in the fermentation of
acetate methane was derived from the methyl carbon and the carboxyl
carbon was the source of the carbon dioxide (2). Barker (Fig.
1) was particularly excited by these
results because they were an exception to an earlier hypothesis of van
Niel that methane is derived exclusively from carbon dioxide. However,
in the other fatty acid fermentations carbon dioxide did serve as oxidant and was reduced to methane.
Formate was actively fermented to a mixture of methane, hydrogen, and
carbon dioxide. Two microorganisms were enriched in parallel when
formate was supplied as substrate. One proved to be a methane-producing
motile coccus that we named Methanococcus vannielii in honor
of C. B. van Niel (3). The other was a rod-shaped organism that I
later named Clostridium sticklandii (4).
Detailed studies on the morphology and biochemical properties of
M. vannielii (3) constituted a major portion of my Ph.D. thesis, and I was very gratified that the results of all of these studies were published with Barker in a series of papers on methane fermentations.
| |
Aerobic Metabolism of Cholesterol |
When I first joined the newly formed National Heart Institute
at NIH in 1950, I continued working on a project initiated during the
year I spent as a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard Medical School. The
oxidation of cholesterol using enzymes from an aerobic
Nocardia species was investigated. At that time, sterols
formed by selective oxidation of the cholesterol side chain would have
been useful precursors of cortisone and certain hormones such as
progesterone. Unfortunately, cholesterol was degraded completely by the
organism under a variety of conditions, and we could not detect any of the desired intermediate products. However, an enzyme that oxidized cholesterol at position 3 of the ring to form  -4-cholestene-3-one was identified and partially purified. Later, preparations of this
cholesterol oxidase were produced by P-L Biochemicals, Inc. and used
clinically for determination of cholesterol.
| |
Amino Acid Fermentation Studies |
After my unsuccessful experience with strictly aerobic
bacteria as enzyme sources, I was glad to retreat to the anaerobic world and initiated studies on the fermentation of amino acid substrates by the clostridial species I had isolated along with M. vannielii from San Francisco Bay mud (4). Initial studies on the anaerobic metabolism of lysine and ornithine (5) and the roles
of vitamin B12 in these processes (6) provided examples of
interesting new reactions and additional roles of B12
coenzyme. The degradation of lysine to acetate, butyrate, and ammonia
occurred by two distinct processes. In one, acetate was derived from
carbon atoms 1 and 2 of the 6-carbon chain of L-lysine, and
the residual 4 carbon atoms were converted to butyrate. In the other,
acetate was derived from carbon atoms 5 and 6 of
D-lysine and butyrate from carbon atoms 1-4.
These conversions required the participation of an imposing list of
cofactors and involved many distinct enzymic steps (7).
Another amino acid transformation investigated in the early studies was
the reductive deamination of glycine by C. sticklandii. Significantly, glycine reduction proved to be an energy-conserving process linked eventually to the formation of ATP (8). Thus, in the
presence of orthophosphate and ADP, glycine was reduced to acetate and
ammonia and ATP was formed with the stoichiometry shown in Equation 1.
|
(Eq. 1)
|
Much later the direct products of the glycine reductase
complex were shown to be ammonia and acetyl phosphate (9), and the
highly active acetate kinase contaminant in the enzyme preparations converted acetyl phosphate and ADP to acetate and ATP. The key discovery that one of the protein components of the glycine reductase complex is a selenoprotein (10, 11) shifted the emphasis of my later research.
| |
The Selenium Era |
Much to my surprise the studies on glycine reductase from
C. sticklandii led us to the discovery early in May 1972 that the "rich culture medium" containing 2% Tryptone, 1% yeast
extract, and formate used for routine growth of the organism was
selenium-deficient. When supplemented with 1 µM selenite,
the cell population exhibited high glycine reductase activity
throughout the entire growth phase, whereas in the absence of added
selenite glycine reductase was detected only in early log phase cells.
A low molecular weight acidic protein component of the glycine
reductase complex (10), termed protein A, that we had isolated
previously from early log phase cells proved to be the missing factor
in cell-free extracts prepared from end of log phase cell populations
that were not supplemented with selenium. A typical dilution curve was
exhibited for protein A levels in extracts as a function of growth of
C. sticklandii in the non-selenite-supplemented medium. In
retrospect, I realized that in the 1950s, when the Bethesda tap water
could be used for culture of various anaerobic bacteria, the levels of
glycine reductase in C. sticklandii were considerably higher than they were later when we were forced to use distilled water because
of high levels of neutral detergents in the water supply. It is evident
that many of the so-called "rich culture media" used by
microbiologists are selenium-deficient, and this is true also for
various serum-supplemented media used for culture of mammalian cells.
To determine whether selenium was an actual component of protein A,
C. sticklandii was grown in media containing
[75Se]selenite. This resulted in the incorporation of
radioactivity in protein A, and the 75Se content of the
protein was enriched in parallel with enzyme activity during isolation
of the protein in near homogeneous form (11). Thus, by the end of June
1972 we had evidence of the existence of an essential
selenium-containing protein, the protein A component of glycine reductase.
There followed a "learning period" for me concerning the chemistry
of selenium and its relative, sulfur, to determine the identity of the
selenium compound in the labeled protein A. I obtained several
organoselenium compounds from the National Cancer Institute library
that originally had been collected as potential carcinogens. However,
the chemists who had synthesized these compounds had introduced phenyl
groups for stability purposes, thus limiting their use as possible
model compounds for our studies. Before the identification in 1957 of
selenium as an essential nutrient for rats (12) and birds (13), it was
known in biology mainly for its toxic properties.
| |
Identification of Selenocysteine in Glycine Reductase Protein
A |
I had determined previously (10) that reaction of the reduced
form of protein A with iodoacetamide inhibited its biological activity
as an essential component of the glycine reductase complex and had
assumed that one or more essential SH groups had been alkylated. When
we treated the 75Se-labeled protein with iodoacetamide or
iodoacetate, the biological activity likewise was destroyed, but
elimination of radioactive selenium as inorganic forms previously
observed during acid hydrolysis was prevented almost completely.
Instead, we could recover the radiolabel from the acid hydrolysates in
a compound containing an alkyl group attached to the selenium. This
derivative was identified as Se-carboxymethyl-selenocysteine by
comparison with the corresponding alkyl derivative of authentic
selenocysteine (14). We made several other alkyl derivatives of the
selenoprotein for further identification and established that the
Se-carboxymethyl, Se-carboxyethyl, and Se-aminoethyl forms were the
most satisfactory from the standpoint of stability during acid
hydrolysis and subsequent chromatographic separation on an amino acid
analyzer column. Throughout these studies, my able assistant, Joe
Nathan Davis, provided invaluable expertise and together with two
postdoctoral fellows, Joyce Cone and Raphael Martin del Rio, we could
establish that protein A contains 1 gram atom of selenium per mol and
the selenium is present in the form of a selenocysteine residue in the
polypeptide (14). The methods we developed for identification of
selenocysteine in our bacterial protein were used later by other
investigators to isolate and identify the selenium-containing moiety in
mammalian glutathione peroxidase, another enzyme that had been reported in 1973 to contain selenium (15).
To determine whether free added selenocysteine could be incorporated
into protein A, Gregory Dilworth, a postdoctoral fellow in my
laboratory, synthesized selenocysteine labeled either with 3H, 75Se, or 14C, and we grew
C. sticklandii in the presence of these added labeled substrates. There was no detectable incorporation of the labeled carbon
chain of the amino acid into protein A, but the
[75Se]selenocysteine was used more efficiently as a
selenium source than the normal supplement
[75Se]selenite, which is reduced by thiols in the culture
medium (16). In retrospect, the facile utilization of selenium from selenocysteine for protein A biosynthesis observed in these experiments is indicative of the participation of a selenocysteine lyase. These
lyases, first purified by Kenji Soda and his collaborators in Kyoto
from bacteria (17) and from liver (18), convert selenocysteine to an
atomic form of selenium and alanine.
|
(Eq. 2)
|
For several years, we thought these proteins served solely as
detoxification agents, but they now are considered to function as
selenium transferases or selenium delivery proteins. Much of our
current research is directed to elucidation of the chemical properties
and biochemical roles of these selenium transferases.
Dr. Richard Glass, a sulfur organic chemist, joined our group in 1987 while on sabbatical leave from the University of Arizona. We had met in
1984 in Lindau, Germany, at a Symposium on the Organic Chemistry of
Sulfur. At this meeting the organizers had decided to enlarge the
program to include biologically important selenium compounds, and my
presentation on the small selenoprotein component of glycine reductase
stimulated Dick Glass to become involved in selenium organic chemistry.
During his year in Bethesda, we grew C. sticklandii in the
presence of 77Se and isolated selenoprotein A labeled with
the stable isotope. This was used to investigate conformational
properties of the selenoprotein using 77Se NMR spectroscopy
as a probe. Later, when we discovered that the biological donor for
biosynthesis of selenuridine in tRNAs is selenophosphate (19), the
synthesis of this compound was achieved by Glass and his group, and
authentic selenophosphate was supplied to us as a reference compound
(20). I continue to rely on Dick Glass for advice and assistance
concerning a wide variety of problems we encounter in the field of
selenium chemistry.
| |
The UGA Codon Is Used for Specific Selenocysteine
Incorporation |
The presence of an unusual amino acid in two selenoenzymes,
glycine reductase and glutathione peroxidase, that was not specified by
the genetic code posed the problem of the method of specific incorporation of a selenoamino acid in the proteins. In fact, 13 years
elapsed before it was recognized that one of the three stop codons,
UGA, is used as the signal for selenocysteine insertion into a growing
polypeptide chain. Simultaneously it was shown by August Böck and
his collaborators in München that the TGA codon in the
Escherichia coli formate dehydrogenase H gene directed selenocysteine incorporation into the protein (21) and by P. R.
Harrison and his collaborators in Glasgow that the TGA codon in the
murine glutathione peroxidase gene corresponded to the position of
selenocysteine in bovine glutathione peroxidase (22). The amino acid
sequence of bovine glutathione peroxidase had been determined earlier
at Grunenthal GmbH in Aachen by Flohé and associates (23).
Eventually, I could verify that selenocysteine occurred in the formate
dehydrogenase protein in the position predicted by the TGA codon in the
gene (24). In a series of elegant experiments by August Böck and
his associates, genes were isolated that complemented some of the
mutant strains of E. coli defective in synthesis of formate
dehydrogenase that had been isolated previously by Marie Andre
Mandrand-Berthelot (25-27). Four genes that encoded four different
products essential for the specific synthesis of selenocysteine and its
insertion into protein were cloned and the expressed products
characterized. In one step, a serine esterified to a special tRNA
(selC product, anticodon UCA complementary to UGA) is
converted to selenocysteinyl-tRNA by a pyridoxal
phosphate-dependent selenocysteine synthase
(selA gene product) using selenium from selenophosphate,
produced by selenophosphate synthetase, the selD gene
product (19, 27, 28). A unique elongation factor (the
selB gene product) that binds a secondary stem loop
structure located 3' to the UGA in the E. coli fdhF mRNA
forms a complex with the selenocysteinyl-tRNA for delivery at the
ribosome site and insertion of selenocysteine at UGA (29). Refinements
of these groundbreaking discoveries still are being made by many
investigators in the field, particularly with respect to the differing
modes of recognition of UGA for selenocysteine incorporation in
eukaryotes, archae, and E. coli. This process that prevents
operation of the usual translation termination step and instead directs
insertion of selenocysteine at a specific in-frame UGA codon is an
important example of a growing list of exceptions to the established
stop codon rules (30).
| |
E. coli Formate Dehydrogenase |
David Grahame and Milton Axley, working in the anaerobic
laboratory at NIH, developed an elegant two-step chromatographic procedure for isolation of the markedly oxygen-sensitive 80-kDa E. coli formate dehydrogenase H (31) in highly purified
form. This enzyme contains molybdenum in a molybdopterin cofactor in addition to the selenocysteine in the polypeptide. Detailed kinetic analysis of the enzyme (32) and a comparison of the catalytic advantages afforded by selenium over sulfur revealed (33) that the
selenocysteine-containing native or wild-type enzyme was about 300 times more active than the selenocysteine/Cys mutant for oxidation of
formate with benzyl viologen as the artificial electron acceptor.
A few years later, it was shown in EPR studies that the selenium of the
selenocysteine residue in formate dehydrogenase is coordinated directly
to the molybdenum in the molybdopterin cofactor (34). The oxidation of
formate by this enzyme does not involve a typical
molybdenum-dependent hydroxylation mechanism. Instead, formate is converted directly to carbon dioxide without introduction of
oxygen from solvent (35). Crystallization of the oxygen-labile enzyme
under strictly anaerobic conditions was achieved (36) and based on
analysis of the crystal structure (37), it was deduced that the
selenium serves as the immediate proton acceptor in the reaction. This
would suggest an effect of neighboring protein groups because usually
at neutral pH a selenol is almost fully ionized. In contrast, from
x-ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS) studies of oxidized and reduced
forms of the enzyme, a novel selenosulfide ligation to the molybdenum
was proposed as the proton acceptor (38). A possible alternative
mechanism involving hydride or hydrogen atom transfer from formate to
the selenosulfide instead of proton transfer also was suggested. Based
on these somewhat differing types of evidence, the exact mechanism of
action of the E. coli formate dehydrogenase and the precise
role of selenium in the enzyme remain to be established. In
vivo, the reducing equivalents from formate oxidation are
transferred via an iron sulfur cluster eventually to a hydrogenase, and
hydrogen gas is evolved.
| |
Selenocysteine Incorporation in Clostridia |
Despite the dearth of information concerning the genetic
makeup of anaerobic spore-forming members of the genus
Clostridium, Greg Garcia was able to isolate and clone the
glycine reductase selenoprotein A gene from two different clostridia
(39, 40) and establish that an in-frame TGA codon in each corresponded to selenocysteine at position 44 in the polypeptides (41). However, attempts to express the C. sticklandii cloned gene in
E. coli were only partially successful (40). The
full-length, 18-kDa immunologically reactive protein was produced in
good yield, but the catalytic activity as a component of glycine
reductase was only about 10% that of native selenoprotein. A
full-length protein produced in the absence of selenium or in a SelD
mutant unable to synthesize selenophosphate was inactive. Detailed
analysis showed that read-through and suppression of the UGA codon
involved a cysteine-tRNA, and either cysteine or occasionally
selenocysteine esterified to the tRNA was inserted. It was concluded
that the mRNA secondary stem-loop structure required by E. coli for UGA-directed specific selenocysteine insertion was not
present in the clostridial mRNA structure. Although details of
rules concerning clostridial selenoprotein gene expression are still
lacking, the now available genomic sequence of Clostridium
difficile should provide information on the SECIS stem-loop
structure involved and its location in the mRNA. In fact, both
glycine reductase and formate dehydrogenase were detected in extracts
of a strain of C. difficile that we used in our studies in
the 1950s, and the corresponding genes have been found in the published
genomic structure. It is clear that the statement commonly made in the
literature to the effect that in all prokaryotes the SECIS element is
identical to that in E. coli and is located in the same
orientation as in FdhF is incorrect. E. coli is not
representative of all prokaryotes.
| |
Seleno-tRNAs |
Another type of biochemical process in which selenophosphate
is utilized as selenium donor is the synthesis of 2-selenouridine in
the "wobble position" of the anticodons of certain tRNAs. The 2-selenouridine residue in the form of
5-methylaminomethyl-2-selenouridine had been identified earlier in the
lysine and glutamate tRNAs of E. coli, Salmonella
typhimurium, C. sticklandii, and M. vannielii (42). When Dr. Zsuzsanna Veres, a young Hungarian
scientist from Budapest, came to my laboratory as a Visiting Fellow she decided to work on the biochemistry of 2-selenouridine. My good luck in
having Dr. Veres as a collaborator came about as a result of my visit
to Budapest in 1988 as a member of a USA National Academy of Sciences
committee commissioned to evaluate the mutual benefits of exchanges
between the United States and the Hungarian Academies of Sciences. When
my counterpart on the Hungarian Academy committee, Professor Geza
Denes, heard that I had an opening in my laboratory for a Foreign
Visiting Scientist, he suggested his best student as a possible
candidate. Dr. Veres was interested and after the usual formalities she
arrived in my laboratory in August 1989. Thus started a very fruitful
collaboration of almost 5 years and a deep friendship developed. During
Zsuzsa's stay in the laboratory, she demonstrated that the ATP
requirement for selenouridine synthesis in tRNAs was explained entirely
by its use in the generation of selenophosphate, the biological donor of selenium in the reaction (19, 20, 43). A subsequent step involved
the replacement of a sulfur in the 2-thiouridine precursor in tRNA with
selenium to form the 2-selenouridine residue, and the responsible
enzyme system was partially purified (44). Veres' detailed studies on
selenophosphate synthetase and the role of the enzyme in the generation
of the new high energy selenium donor compound were very important
contributions to the overall field of selenium biochemistry. When Dr.
Ick Young Kim, a young investigator from Korea, arrived, he joined
Veres in studies on selenophosphate synthetase, and by site-directed
mutagenesis he produced several useful mutant forms of the enzyme (45).
The Veres-Kim collaboration proved to be very productive in this investigation.
| |
Selenophosphate Synthetase Reaction Mechanism |
Later studies in my laboratory on the selenophosphate
synthetase reaction mechanism by Dr. Heidi Walker demonstrated that a
group on the enzyme first is phosphorylated by reaction with ATP (46).
This phosphoryl group derived from the  -phosphoryl group of ATP
subsequently is transferred to selenium to form selenophosphate. The
ADP moiety of ATP, which is tightly bound during the initial step, then
is cleaved in a hydrolytic step to form orthophosphate (derived from
the  -phosphoryl group) and AMP (47). Earlier, we thought that a
pyrophosphoryl derivative of the enzyme might be formed in the initial
reaction with ATP leaving AMP as the other product. However, Song
Liu's experiments showed that retention of 32P from
-32P-labeled ATP was insignificant, whereas when
-32P-labeled ATP was used up to 0.6 eq of
32P was bound to the enzyme (48). Details of the mechanism
of the selenophosphate synthetase reaction are still under investigation.
| |
Selenium-dependent Enzymes That Do Not Contain
Selenocysteine |
A group of molybdopterin-dependent hydroxylases,
nicotinic acid hydroxylase (49, 50), xanthine dehydrogenase, and purine hydroxylase (51), that have been purified from anaerobic bacteria require selenium for activity. However, the selenium in these enzymes
is not present in selenocysteine residues in the polypeptides but
instead occurs in a labile cofactor. The selenium can be released from
the cofactor by treatment with cyanide and thus might be in the form of
a perselenide. The mechanism of incorporation of selenium in these
enzymes currently is being investigated by Dr. William Self, who
discovered purine hydroxylase, the most recent addition to the list of
selenium-dependent hydroxylases. It was shown earlier in
EPR studies that the selenium in nicotinic hydroxylase is coordinated
to the molybdenum of the molybdopterin cofactor (50). In contrast to
the hydroxylases from anaerobic bacteria, the corresponding enzymes
from eukaryotes have not been shown to be selenoenzymes.
| |
Discovery of a New Mammalian Selenoenzyme |
Our studies on thioredoxin reductase were initiated as the
result of a serendipitous discovery made by Dr. Takashi Tamura, a young
Japanese Visiting Fellow in our laboratory, during his one-year leave
of absence from Okayama University. A cytochrome P-450 present in a
human lung adenocarcinoma cell line had been predicted to contain
selenocysteine based on the occurrence of a TGA codon in the open
reading frame of the corresponding gene (52). The possibility that the
putative selenocysteine residue, located at some distance from the
conserved cysteine at the heme binding site, might have a novel role in
the enzyme prompted Dr. Tamura to attempt isolation of the protein. The
lung adenocarcinoma cells were cultured in the presence of
[75Se]selenite, and the expected 57-kDa protein labeled
with 75Se was isolated in near homogeneous form. Two
different alkyl derivatives of the protein were prepared, and the
corresponding alkyl [75Se]selenocysteines were isolated
and identified. The chromophore bound to the protein, however, proved
to be FAD instead of a heme group. The FAD could be reduced
specifically by NADPH, and various disulfides, including thioredoxin,
served as substrates for the enzyme. It was evident that this
selenoprotein, a homodimer of 57-kDa subunits, must be thioredoxin
reductase, an enzyme that had been purified from various mammalian
tissues and studied by other investigators but never suspected to be a
selenoenzyme. Although the reported sequence of a putative thioredoxin
reductase gene from human placenta (53) contained a TGA codon near the C terminus, this had been interpreted as a termination signal. Subsequently, experiments carried out in my laboratory by Vadim Gladyshev (54) and by Song Liu (55) showed that the selenocysteine in
thioredoxin reductase, previously identified by Tamura, occurs at the C
terminus in the sequence -Cys-selenocysteine-Gly in a position
corresponding to the TGA codon in the placental gene. Thioredoxin
reductases purified from human Jurkat T cells (54), from HeLa cells,
and from the human adenocarcinoma cells (55) were shown to have the
same C-terminal triplet peptide sequences.
The importance of the potential C-terminal redox center for catalytic
activity was shown in experiments with the HeLa cell enzyme by Sergey
Gorlatov (56). Alkylation of the NADPH-reduced enzyme under conditions
that limited alkyl group incorporation to the one ionized selenol per
subunit was sufficient to inhibit catalytic activity 99% (56). When
HeLa cells were grown at higher than optimal oxygen levels, the
isolated enzyme consisted of significant amounts of species that
contained an average of 0.5 instead of 1 selenium atom per
subunit, and these forms exhibited correspondingly lowered catalytic
activities (57). Reduced forms of thioredoxin reductase were very
oxygen-labile in the absence of bound pyridine nucleotide, and
corresponding losses of selenium and catalytic activity were observed.
It now is generally agreed by a number of investigators that premature
termination of gene expression at the UGA codon gives rise to a
truncated inactive form of the enzyme, and mutant enzyme species in
which a cysteine residue replaces the selenocysteine exhibit very low
catalytic activity (58). It thus is evident that the additional
C-terminal redox center present in fully active mammalian thioredoxin
reductases is an important determinant of catalytic activity and is
essential in addition to the bound FAD and the redox active cysteine
pair near the NADPH binding site in the N-terminal region of the protein.
| |
Selenium Transport Proteins |
One of the interesting recent developments in the selenium
field comes from the realization of the importance of selenium transport or delivery proteins in selenoprotein biosynthesis. Our
specific interest involves the participation of these proteins in
supplying selenium for selenophosphate biosynthesis. Even under in vitro conditions an atomic form of selenium provided by a
delivery protein is used more efficiently as substrate by
selenophosphate synthetase than millimolar levels of selenide normally
added to reaction mixtures (59). The atomic form of selenium can be
derived from free selenocysteine by selenocysteine lyases that are
structurally related to the NifS sulfur transferase family of proteins
(60) or from inorganic selenium compounds, i.e. selenite
after reaction with thiols to form RS-Se-SR adducts. Enzymes, such as
rhodanese, that can transfer the sulfane sulfur from thiosulfate to
cyanide generate a persulfide derivative of an active cysteine residue as the enzyme-bound intermediate (61). In an analogous process, a
perselenide derivative of a reactive cysteine residue could be
generated by reaction with a selenium substrate (62). An unusual
selenium-binding protein that I isolated recently from M. vannielii appears to be a candidate for such a role. The gene that
encodes this protein was isolated, cloned, and expressed in E. coli by Dr. William Self. Several properties of the isolated protein expressed in E. coli are identical to those of the
native M. vannielii protein, and preliminary studies by Dr.
Self suggest that the ability to bind selenium may be specific. If so,
this could imply a role in supplying the significant levels of selenium required for synthesis of multiple selenoenzymes involved in the energy
metabolism of M. vannielii (63). The ability to discriminate between selenium present at micromolar concentrations in most biological systems as compared with millimolar levels of sulfur compounds is essential for efficient biosynthesis of specific selenium-containing catalysts.
| |
The Famous NIH Anaerobic Laboratory |
An anaerobic laboratory facility (Nitrogen Laboratory) that
was constructed in the 1960s in Building 3 at NIH at a cost of $250,000
was used for numerous studies on oxygen-sensitive organic catalysts and
oxygen-labile enzymes until March 2001 when the occupants of Building 3 were moved to Building 50. The walls of the anaerobic facility are made
of 3/8-inch carbon steel plates that were welded into place and
supported by a framework of I-beams. Floor plates were riveted to a
concrete floor. All joints were welded and sealed. A nitrogen
atmosphere containing hydrogen, introduced to remove the last traces of
oxygen by passage through a palladium catalyst bed, was maintained at
less than 10 ppm of oxygen.
This laboratory is still the only one of its kind in the world. For one
of the first tests of the new anaerobic facility, I inoculated Petri
dishes containing a formate-mineral salts agar medium with a culture of
M. vannielii and placed them in an ordinary 37 °C
incubator. When I inspected the plates the next day, I was so delighted
to find colonies of this extremely oxygen-sensitive organism on the
surface of the agar that I laughed, and this caused enough nitrogen to
leak into my mask to set off the alarm system. I then made a rule not
to laugh in the anaerobic laboratory. Seriously, over the years, we and
investigators from other NIH laboratories and several universities have
carried out large scale isolations of oxygen-labile enzymes and
characterized oxygen-sensitive flavoproteins, B12
coenzyme-dependent enzymes, and selenoproteins in this
anaerobic facility (64, 65). To conduct many of these procedures in an
anaerobic glove box is either cumbersome or impossible as we are
learning to our sorrow. Sadly, this important anaerobic laboratory facility will soon be demolished to convert Building 3 into
administrative office space.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
Published, JBC Papers in Press, October 25, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.X200005200
Address correspondence to: tcstadtman{at}nih.gov.
| |
REFERENCES |
| 1.
|
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Barker, H. A.
(1949)
Studies on the methane fermentation. VII. Tracer experiments on the mechanism of methane formation.
Arch. Biochem.
21,
256-264
|
| 2.
|
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Barker, H. A.
(1951)
Studies on the methane fermentation. IX. The origin of methane in the acetate and methanol fermentations by Methanosarcina.
J. Bacteriol.
61,
81-86[Free Full Text]
|
| 3.
|
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Barker, H. A.
(1951)
Studies on the methane fermentation X. A new formate-decomposing bacterium, Methanococcus vannielii.
J. Bacteriol.
62,
269-280[Free Full Text]
|
| 4.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1954)
On the metabolism of an amino acid fermenting Clostridium.
J. Bacteriol.
67,
314-320[Free Full Text]
|
| 5.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1962)
Lysine fermentation to fatty acids and ammonia: A cobamide coenzyme-dependent process.
J. Biol. Chem.
237,
2409-2411[Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 6.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1972)
B12 coenzyme-dependent amino group migrations.
The Enzymes
6,
539-563
|
| 7.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1983)
Some vitamin B12- and selenium-dependent enzymes.
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.
41,
233-236[CrossRef]
|
| 8.
|
Stadtman, T. C.,
Elliott, P.,
and Tiemann, L.
(1958)
Studies on the enzymic reduction of amino acids III. Phosphate esterification coupled with glycine reduction.
J. Biol. Chem.
231,
961-973[Free Full Text]
|
| 9.
|
Arkowitz, R. A.,
and Abeles, R. H.
(1989)
Identification of acetyl phosphate as the product of clostridial glycine reductase: evidence for an acyl enzyme intermediate.
Biochemistry
28,
4639-4644
|
| 10.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1966)
Glycine reduction to acetate and ammonia: identification of ferredoxin and another low molecular weight acidic protein as components of the reductase system.
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
113,
9-19[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 11.
|
Turner, D. C.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1973)
Purification of protein components of clostridial glycine reductase system and characterization of protein A as a selenoprotein.
Arch. Biochem. Biophys
154,
366-381[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 12.
|
Schwarz, K.,
and Foltz, C. M.
(1957)
Selenium as an integral part of Factor 3 against dietary necrotic liver degeneration.
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
79,
3292-3293
|
| 13.
|
Patterson, E. L.,
Milstrey, R.,
and Stokstad, E. L. R.
(1957)
Effect of selenium in preventing exudative diathesis in chicks.
Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med
95,
617-620[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 14.
|
Cone, J. E.,
Martin del Rio, R.,
Davis, J. N.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1976)
Chemical characterization of the selenoprotein component of clostridial glycine reductase: identification of selenocysteine as the organoselenium moiety.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
73,
2659-2663[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 15.
|
Forstrom, J. W.,
Zakowski, J. J.,
and Tappel, A. L.
(1978)
Identification of the catalytic site of rat liver glutathione peroxidase as selenocysteine.
Biochemistry
17,
2639-2644[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 16.
| Stadtman, T. C., Dilworth, G. L., and Chen, C. S. (1979)
in Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Organic
Selenium and Tellurium Compounds (Cagniant, D., and Kirsch, G.,
eds) Selenium-dependent bacterial enzymes, pp. 115-130,
Metz, France
|
| 17.
|
Chocat, P.,
Esaki, N.,
Tanizawa, K.,
Nakamura, K.,
Tanaka, H.,
and Soda, K.
(1985)
Purification and characterization of selenocysteine B-lyase from Citrobacter freundii.
J. Bacteriol.
163,
669-676[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 18.
|
Esaki, N.,
Nakamura, T.,
Tanaka, H.,
and Soda, K.
(1982)
Selenocysteine lyase, a novel enzyme that specifically acts on selenocysteine. Mammalian distribution and purification and properties of pig liver enzyme.
J. Biol. Chem.
257,
4386-4391[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 19.
|
Veres, Z.,
Tsai, L.,
Scholz, T. D.,
Politino, M.,
Balaban, R. S.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1992)
Synthesis of 5-methylaminomethyl-2-selenouridine in tRNAs: 31P NMR studies show that the labile selenium donor synthesized by the selD gene product contains selenium bonded to phosphorus.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
89,
2975-2979[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 20.
|
Glass, R. S.,
Singh, W. P.,
Jung, W.,
Veres, Z.,
Scholz, T. D.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1993)
Monoselenophosphate: synthesis, characterization and identity with the prokaryotic biological selenium donor, compound SePX.
Biochemistry
32,
12555-12559[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 21.
|
Zinoni, F.,
Birkmann, A.,
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Böck, A.
(1986)
Nucleotide sequence and expression of the selenocysteine-containing polypeptide of formate dehydrogenase (formate-hydrogen-lyase-linked) from Escherichia coli.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
83,
4650-4654[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 22.
|
Chambers, I.,
Frampton, J.,
Goldfarb, P.,
Affara, N.,
McBain, W.,
and Harrison, P. P.
(1986)
The structure of the mouse glutathione peroxidase gene: the selenocysteine in the active site is encoded by the "termination codon" TGA.
EMBO J.
5,
1221-1227[Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 23.
|
Gunzler, W. A.,
Steffens, G. J.,
Grossmann, A.,
Kim, S.-M. A.,
Otting, F.,
Wendel, A.,
and Flohé, L.
(1984)
The amino acid sequence of bovine glutathione peroxidase.
Hoppe-Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem
365,
195-212[Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 24.
|
Stadtman, T. C.,
Davis, J. N.,
Ching, W.-M.,
Zinoni, F.,
and Böck, A.
(1991)
Amino acid sequence analysis of Escherichia coli formate dehydrogenase (FDHH) confirms that TGA in the gene encodes selenocysteine in the gene product.
BioFactors
3,
21-27[Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 25.
|
Haddock, B. A.,
and Mandrand-Berthelot, M.-A.
(1982)
Escherichia coli formate-to-nitrate respiratory chain: genetic analysis.
Biochem. Soc. Trans
10,
478-480[Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 26.
|
Leinfelder, W.,
Zehelin, E.,
Mandrand-Berthelot, M.-A.,
and Böck, A.
(1988)
Gene for a novel tRNA species that accepts L-serine and cotranslationally inserts selenocysteine.
Nature
331,
723-725[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 27.
|
Leinfelder, W.,
Forchhammer, K.,
Zinoni, F.,
Sawers, G.,
Mandrand-Berthelot, M.-A.,
and Böck, A.
(1988)
Escherichia coli genes whose products are involved in selenium metabolism.
J. Bacteriol
170,
540-546[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 28.
|
Böck, A.,
Forchhammer, K.,
Heider, J.,
Leinfelder, W.,
Sawers, G.,
Veprek, B.,
and Zinoni, F.
(1991)
Selenocysteine: the 21st amino acid.
Mol. Microbiol.
5,
515-520[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 29.
|
Forchhammer, K.,
Leinfelder, W.,
and Böck, A.
(1989)
Identification of a novel translation factor necessary for the incorporation of selenocysteine into protein.
Nature
342,
453-456[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 30.
|
Hao, B.,
Gong, W.,
Ferguson, T. K.,
James, C. M.,
Krzycki, J. A.,
and Chan, M. K.
(2002)
A new UAG-encoded residue in the structure of a methanogen methyltransferase.
Science
296,
1462-1466[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 31.
|
Axley, M. J.,
Grahame, D. A.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1990)
Escherichia coli formate-hydrogen lyase. Purification and properties of the selenium-dependent formate dehydrogenase component.
J. Biol. Chem.
265,
18213-18218[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 32.
|
Axley, M. J.,
and Grahame, D. A.
(1991)
Kinetics for formate dehydrogenase of Escherichia coli formate-hydrogen lyase.
J. Biol. Chem.
266,
13731-13736[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 33.
|
Axley, M. J.,
Böck, A.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1991)
Catalytic properties of an Escherichia coli formate dehydrogenase mutant in which sulfur replaces selenium.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
88,
8450-8454[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 34.
|
Gladyshev, V. N.,
Khangulov, S. V.,
Axley, M. J.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1994)
Coordination of selenium to molybdenum in formate dehydrogenase H from Escherichia coli.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
91,
7708-7711[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 35.
|
Khangulov, S. V.,
Gladyshev, V. N.,
Dismukes, G. C.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1998)
Selenium-containing formate dehydrogenase H from Escherichia coli: a molybdopterin enzyme that catalyzes formate oxidation without oxygen transfer.
Biochemistry
37,
3518-3528[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 36.
|
Gladyshev, V. N.,
Boyington, J. C.,
Khangulov, S. V.,
Grahame, D. A.,
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Sun, P. D.
(1996)
Characterization of crystalline formate dehydrogenase H from Escherichia coli.
J. Biol. Chem.
271,
8095-8100[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 37.
|
Boyington, J. C.,
Gladyshev, V. N.,
Khangulov, S. V.,
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Sun, P. D.
(1997)
Crystal structure of formate dehydrogenase H: catalysis involving Mo, molybdopterin, selenocysteine, and an Fe4S4 cluster.
Science
275,
1305-1308[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 38.
|
George, G. N.,
Colangelo, C. M.,
Dong, J.,
Scott, R. A.,
Khangulov, S. V.,
Gladyshev, V. N.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1998)
X-ray absorption spectroscopy of the molybdenum site of Escherichia coli formate dehydrogenase.
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
120,
1267-1273
|
| 39.
|
Garcia, G. E.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1991)
Selenoprotein A component of the glycine reductase complex from Clostridium purinolyticum: nucleotide sequence of the gene shows that selenocysteine is encoded by UGA.
J. Bacteriol.
173,
2093-2098[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 40.
|
Garcia, G. E.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1992)
Clostridium sticklandii glycine reductase selenoprotein A gene: cloning, sequencing and expression in Escherichia coli.
J. Bacteriol.
174,
7080-7089[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 41.
|
Sliwkowski, M. X.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1988)
Selenoprotein A of the clostridial glycine reductase complex: purification and amino acid sequence of the selenocysteine-containing peptide.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
85,
368-371[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 42.
|
Wittwer, A. J.,
Tsai, L.,
Ching, W.-M.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1984)
Identification and synthesis of a naturally occurring selenonucleoside in bacterial tRNAs: 5-[(methylamino)methyl]-2-selenouridine.
Biochemistry
23,
4650-4655[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 43.
|
Veres, Z.,
Kim, I. Y.,
Scholz, T. D.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1994)
Selenophosphate synthetase. Enzyme properties and catalytic reaction.
J. Biol. Chem.
269,
10597-10603[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 44.
|
Veres, Z.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1994)
A purified selenophosphate-dependent enzyme from Salmonella typhimurium catalyzes the replacement of sulfur in 2-thiouridine in tRNAs with selenium.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
91,
8092-8096[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 45.
|
Kim, I. Y.,
Veres, Z.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1993)
Biochemical analysis of Escherichia coli selenophosphate synthetase mutants.
J. Biol. Chem.
268,
27020-27025[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 46.
|
Mullins, L. S.,
Hong, S.-B.,
Gibson, G. E.,
Walker, H.,
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Raushel, F. M.
(1997)
Identification of a phosphorylated enzyme intermediate in the catalytic mechanism for selenophosphate synthetase.
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
119,
6684-6685
|
| 47.
|
Walker, H.,
Ferretti, J. A.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1998)
Isotope exchange studies on the Escherichia coli selenophosphate synthetase mechanism.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
95,
2180-2185[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 48.
|
Liu, S.-Y.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1997)
Selenophosphate synthetase: enzyme labeling studies with [-32P]ATP, [-32P]ATP, [8-14C]ATP and [75Se]selenide.
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
341,
353-359[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 49.
|
Dilworth, G. L.
(1982)
Properties of the selenium-containing nicotinic acid hydroxylase from Clostridium barkeri.
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
219,
30-38[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 50.
|
Gladyshev, V. N.,
Khangulov, S. V.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1994)
Nicotinic acid hydroxylase from Clostridium barkeri: electron paramagnetic resonance studies show that selenium is coordinated with molybdenum in the catalytically active selenium-dependent enzyme.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
91,
232-236[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 51.
|
Self, W. T.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(2000)
Selenium-dependent metabolism of purines: a selenium-dependent purine hydroxylase and xanthine dehydrogenase were purified from Clostridium purinolyticum and characterized.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
97,
7208-7213[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 52.
|
Tamura, T.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1996)
A new selenoprotein from human lung adenocarcinoma cells: purification, properties and thioredoxin reductase activity.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
93,
1006-1011[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 53.
|
Gasdaska, P. Y.,
Gasdaska, J. R.,
Cochran, S.,
and Powis, G.
(1995)
Cloning and sequencing of a human thioredoxin reductase.
FEBS Lett.
373,
5-9[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 54.
|
Gladyshev, V. N.,
Jeang, K.-T.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1996)
Selenocysteine, identified as the penultimate C-terminal residue in human T-cell thioredoxin reductase, corresponds to TGA in the human placental gene.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
93,
6146-6151[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 55.
|
Liu, S.-Y.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1997)
Heparin-binding properties of selenium-containing thioredoxin reductase from HeLa cells and human lung adenocarcinoma cells.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
94,
6138-6141[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 56.
|
Gorlatov, S. N.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1998)
Human thioredoxin reductase from HeLa cells: selective alkylation of selenocysteine residue in the protein inhibits enzyme activity and reduction with NADPH influences affinity to heparin.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
95,
8520-8525[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 57.
|
Gorlatov, S. N.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1999)
Human selenium-dependent thioredoxin reductase from HeLa cells: properties of forms with differing heparin affinities.
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
369,
133-142[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 58.
|
Lee, S.-R.,
Bar-Noy, S.,
Kwon, J.,
Levine, R. L.,
Stadtman, T. C.,
and Rhee, S. G.
(2000)
Mammalian thioredoxin reductase: oxidation of the C-terminal cysteine/selenocysteine active site forms a thioselenide, and replacement of selenium with sulfur markedly reduces catalytic activity.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
97,
2521-2526[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 59.
|
Lacourciere, G. M.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(1998)
The NIFS protein can function as a selenide delivery protein in the biosynthesis of selenophosphate.
J. Biol. Chem.
273,
30921-30926[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 60.
|
Lacourciere, G. M.
(2002)
Selenium is mobilized in vivo from free selenocysteine and is incorporated specifically into formate dehydrogenase H and tRNA nucleosides.
J. Bacteriol.
184,
1940-1946[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 61.
|
Bordo, D.,
Forlani, F.,
Spallarossa, A.,
Colnaghi, R.,
Carpen, A.,
Bolognesi, M.,
and Pagani, S.
(2001)
A persufurated cysteine promotes active site reactivity in Azotobacter vinelandii rhodanese.
J. Biol. Chem.
382,
1245-1252
|
| 62.
|
Ogasawara, Y.,
Lacourciere, G. M.,
and Stadtman, T. C.
(2001)
Formation of selenium-substituted rhodanese by reaction with selenite and glutathione: possible role of a protein perselenide in a selenium delivery system.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.
98,
9494-9498[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 63.
|
Yamazaki, S.
(1982)
A selenium-containing hydrogenase from Methanococcus vannielii. Identification of the selenium moiety as a selenocysteine residue.
J. Biol. Chem.
257,
7926-7929[Abstract/Free Full Text]
|
| 64.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1990)
Selenium biochemistry.
Annu. Rev. Biochem.
59,
111-127[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
| 65.
|
Stadtman, T. C.
(1996)
Selenocysteine.
Annu. Rev. Biochem.
65,
83-100[CrossRef][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
|
Copyright © 2002 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.
 CiteULike  Complore  Connotea  Del.icio.us  Digg  Reddit  Technorati What's this?
Copyright © 2002 by the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.
|
Advertisement
Advertisement
|
TOP
Anaerobic Metabolism Background
Aerobic Metabolism of...