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J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 278, Issue 8, 5493-5496, February 21, 2003
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From the Division of Reproductive Biology, Department of Obstetrics
and Gynecology, Stanford University School of Medicine,
Stanford, California 94305
In the five decades that have elapsed since the
identification of the second messenger cAMP, most of the components
involved in this signaling pathway have been identified, and many of
their functions are understood at the molecular and atomic levels. Yet an unexpected and often disconcerting outcome of this progress is the
realization that apparently identical cAMP signals induce divergent
physiological responses. Countless reports indicate that G
protein-coupled receptors
(GPCRs)1 that activate the
cAMP pathway have distinct and often opposing effects on cell
replication/differentiation. Signal compartmentalization, coupling to
and activation of additional signaling pathways, and the cellular
context in which the cAMP signal develops may account for these
divergent biological effects. In view of their role in cAMP signal
inactivation and compartmentalization, it is likely that the different
phosphodiesterases (PDEs) expressed in any given cell contribute to the
properties of cAMP signaling. Here we will review the PDE4 family of
enzymes, as well as their role in desensitization, feedback regulation,
and signal compartmentalization.
Of the 11 families of PDEs thus far identified, PDE4, PDE7, and
PDE8 are specific for cAMP (1, 2). However, isoforms of the PDE4 family
often account for most of the cAMP-hydrolyzing activity of a cell.
These isoenzymes were initially identified as a chromatography peak of
PDE activity and in early reports were referred to as PDEIV, PDEIII,
cAMP-specific PDE, or rolipram-sensitive PDE. The Drosophila
dunce gene was the first PDE gene to be characterized (3). Soon
thereafter, the rodent orthologous genes were identified (4-6),
demonstrating that four PDE4 paralogs are present on different chromosomes in the mammalian genomes. Whereas only one PDE4 gene is
found in Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila, and
the sponge Ephytadia fluviatidis, the presence of multiple
genes can be traced back to the zebrafish (Danio rerio). The
Drosophila and mammalian PDE4 genes are composed of multiple
transcriptional units and multiple promoters (2, 7). For instance, the
human PDE4D locus that maps to 5q12 encompasses 150 kb of
genomic sequence with at least four transcriptional units. Introns
functioning as promoters are often more than 20 kb long. Similar
complexity has been reported for other PDE4 genes (7), with
some minor differences. As a result of this elaborate architecture,
there are 4 or 5 transcripts for PDE4A, 4 for
PDE4B, possibly 3 for PDE4C, and 5 or more for
PDE4D, for a total of at least 16 open reading frames in
humans. Undoubtedly, the presence of multiple promoters is necessary
for appropriate tissue- and development-specific expression, as well as
for regulation by different extracellular stimuli (see below).
From the characterization of PDE4 mRNAs and their
corresponding protein products, it is established that 16-18 different
PDE4 isoenzymes or variants are expressed in mammalian cells (2, 7).
These variants have closely related kinetic properties and ion
requirements and are all inhibited by rolipram. Structurally, they are
composed of a highly conserved catalytic domain flanked by domains with
regulatory functions. These domains at the carboxyl- and amino-terminal
end of the PDE4 are often variant-specific (Fig.
1). The structure of the PDE4B catalytic
domain has been solved at the atomic level (8), paving the way for the
modeling of the catalytic domain of other PDE4s or even members of
other PDE families. This domain is composed of 17 Unfortunately, the spatial relationship between the catalytic
domain and the surrounding domains is still unknown because the
physicochemical properties of full-length proteins have prevented the
generation of useful crystals. Nevertheless, it is widely accepted that
domains at the amino and carboxyl termini of the PDE4 protein exert
important constraints on the conformation and therefore on the function
of the catalytic core. On the amino-terminal side of the catalytic
domain, two highly conserved regions, termed upstream conserved regions
1 and 2 (UCR1 and -2), have been identified in PDE4 (12). Depending on
the presence of UCR1 and UCR2, PDE4 variants can be distinguished into
two major subgroups, the long and short forms (Fig. 1). The long forms
include UCR1 and UCR2, whereas the short forms contain only UCR2 or a
portion of this domain. The UCR1/UCR2 cassette functions as a
regulatory domain that controls the conformation of the catalytic
domain. Long PDE4s are phosphorylated at a site present in the amino
terminus of UCR1, and this post-translational modification increases
the Vmax of the enzyme up to 4-fold (see below).
In addition, nested deletions or controlled proteolysis of PDE4D, which
cleaves UCR1 and UCR2 away from the catalytic domain, cause an increase
in catalysis (10, 13). Together with the finding that an antibody that binds UCR2 induces an increase in Vmax (13),
these properties of the long forms have led to a model whereby UCR1
phosphorylation modulates the interactions of UCR2 with the catalytic
domain, ultimately altering its conformation and activity. Using yeast two-hybrid assays, it has been determined that UCR1 and UCR2 interact with each other (13, 14). This interaction, thought to be intramolecular, is most likely relevant to the mechanism of enzyme activation by phosphorylation (13, 14). However, we have recently provided evidence for a major role for the UCR1-UCR2 domain in the
quaternary structure of PDE4. Splicing variants containing both modules
behave as dimers, whereas variants with one of the two UCRs missing
behave as monomers (15). This dimerization is most likely critical for
transmitting the conformational changes at the amino terminus to
changes in conformation of the catalytic domain.
It is well established that a subgroup of PDE4 inhibitors, the
prototype being rolipram, bind to the enzyme with kinetics that
indicates the presence of multiple conformational states (16). Although
it was initially thought that this anomalous behavior is due to the
presence of an allosteric site, it is now accepted that rolipram binds
to two or more conformers of the catalytic domain. Because detection of
the high affinity conformation state (termed high affinity rolipram
binding state (16)) requires the presence of Mg2+, and in
view of fluorescence resonance energy transfer data, it has been
proposed that the high affinity state is due to the occupancy of the
Me2 binding site by Mg2+, whereas the low affinity binding
site reflects inhibitor binding to an apoenzyme (17). Although the
hypothesis is quite appealing, additional data suggest that either more
than two conformers are present, or more likely, the UCR1/UCR2 domain
is the primary determinant of multiple conformations of the catalytic
domain. This latter hypothesis is consistent with the differences in
rolipram affinity observed in PDE4 upon phosphorylation (18), in PDE4s
in complex with other proteins (19), and in PDE4s exposed to thiol
reagents (20).
The presence of multiple conformations of PDE4 is relevant for drug
design because it has been proposed that the low affinity conformation
is associated with the therapeutic effects of PDE4 inhibitors, whereas
the high affinity conformation correlates with undesirable central
nervous system and gastric side effects (16, 21). Indeed, compounds
that do not favor the high affinity state of the enzyme often are not
emetic (21).
In the 1970s and 1980s, the synthesis of second generation
inhibitors provided important tools to distinguish PDE4-specific functions from those of other PDEs. In general, treatment with PDE4-selective inhibitors causes an increase in intracellular cAMP with
enhancement or suppression of distal responses depending on the cell
context. However, it is unclear whether functional changes that follow
PDE4 inhibition are exclusively due to changes in cAMP "steady
state" or whether additional, more subtle, and local disruptions of
cAMP signaling produce the myriad effects reported. Because they
participate in feedback regulations involved in cell desensitization,
adaptation, signaling cross-talk, and cAMP signal compartmentalization,
PDE4s are considered to be important cAMP homeostatic regulators.
Even though compounds with lower potency for PDE4C have been
described (21), the PDE4 inhibitors thus far developed are nonselective
because they inhibit PDE4A, PDE4B, and PDE4D isoforms with comparable
IC50 values. Thus, the question of distinct or overlapping
functions of the PDE4s could not be addressed using a pharmacological
approach. A genetic strategy of PDE4 gene inactivation has allowed the
first insight into the function of different PDE4 proteins.
Because clearly distinguishable phenotypes have been observed in the
PDE4B- and PDE4D-null mice, one can conclude that each PDE4 gene subserves distinct functions (22, 23). To some extent,
this specificity may reflect differences in the promoters of PDE4
genes, allowing expression of different proteins at different times
during the life cycle of distinct cells. Because of the large
array of splicing variants with distinct biochemical properties, it is
more difficult to determine the extent of the overlap in the function
of different PDE4 proteins. Certainly, differences in enzyme regulation
or protein-protein interaction suggest specialized functions for each variant.
The phosphorylation and activation of a PDE4 was demonstrated in a
TSH-responsive thyroid cell line (24). In these cells, TSH produces a
rapid, PKA-mediated phosphorylation of PDE4D3 at Ser-54 and an increase
in activity (25). It is worth noting that the Ser and surrounding
residues found in PDE4D3 are not only present in all mammalian PDE4
long splicing variants but are also conserved through evolution from
C. elegans to human, thus implying a critical function for
this domain. Phosphorylation of this site also causes a variable
increase in activity in other long PDE4 variants in overexpression
systems (26, 27). Activation of native PDE4D3 and PDE4D5 by
phosphorylation has been demonstrated in vascular smooth muscle and
lymphocytic cell lines (18, 28, 29).
Together with increased Vmax, phosphorylation
causes an increase in affinity of PDE4D3 for Mg2+ (25).
This finding has led to the proposal that an increased occupancy of Me2
of PDE4 causes changes in conformation and/or the increase in
catalysis, as well as the observed changes in rolipram binding (18,
25). Regardless of the exact mechanism, these data underscore the idea
that modifications at the amino terminus of PDE4 are reflected in
conformational changes in the catalytic pocket.
PDE4D3 phosphorylation contributes to cAMP homeostasis and to the
shape of the cAMP transient because inhibition of PDE4D3 phosphorylation causes an increase in the intensity of the cAMP transient induced by TSH, whereas activation of PDE4D3 by cAMP analogs
decreases cAMP levels (30). However, this feedback regulation must have
additional functions that cannot be probed simply by measuring the
overall intracellular cAMP concentration. A broader impact of PDE4
phosphorylation is implied by the observation that PDE4D3 and the PKA
holoenzyme exist in a complex coordinated by the A kinase anchoring
proteins (AKAPs) (31, 32). In rat Sertoli cells of the testis and
cardiac myocytes, a PKA-PDE4D complex has been identified by
co-immunoprecipitation and immunolocalization of PDE4D and RII (31,
32). (Fig. 2). The presence of AKAP450 and mAKAP in these complexes has been inferred by
co-immunoprecipitation of these anchoring proteins in native or
overexpressed complexes.
MINIREVIEW
Cyclic AMP-specific PDE4 Phosphodiesterases as
Critical Components of Cyclic AMP Signaling*
,
INTRODUCTION
PDE4 Genes and Transcripts
Structural/Functional Properties of PDE4s
helices connected by loops, with helices 6-13 containing residues critical for substrate binding and coordination of two metal ions involved in catalysis. Helices 1-7, 8-11, and 12-16 are clustered in subdomains allowing different conformational states of the catalytic center (8). Although
the binding to metal ion binding site 1 (Me1) probably occupied by
Zn2+ appears to be stable, the Mg2+ or
Mn2+ binding to Me2 may be subject to rapid exchange, a
finding consistent with multiple conformation of the catalytic domain
(9). Structural analysis and mutagenesis (10, 11) have identified
several residues involved in substrate or inhibitor binding and for
cAMP hydrolysis as well as ion coordination.
View larger version (13K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 1.
Domain organization of the PDE4 short and
long forms. Domains are depicted as barrels connected
by wires (putative linker regions). Phosphorylation sites
are in blue circles. The domain arrangement reported is
shared by all PDE4 splicing variants derived from the four genes.
PDE4 Regulation and Its Role in cAMP Signaling
PDE4 Regulation by PKA-mediated Phosphorylation
Presence of a PDE4D-PKA Complex in the Cell
View larger version (40K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 2.
Regulation and subcellular
compartmentalization of PDE4s. The known PDE4 macromolecular
complexes and their subcellular localization are reported in a
hypothetical cell. Anchoring proteins are represented as yellow
barrels, receptors as seven transmembrane domain bundles,
and adenylyl cyclase as two connected bundles of transmembrane helices.
The modified cyclic nucleotide-gated channel used as a cyclic AMP
biosensor is represented as a bundle of blue transmembrane domains. The
location of the PDE4 in proximity to the EP2 receptors is inferred by
the studies with this biosensor. 
ar, -arrestin;
2, adrenergic receptor; Gs, heterotrimeric
guanine nucleotide binding protein; SH3, Src homology 3 binding domain.
TOP
INTRODUCTION
PDE4 Genes and TranscriptsThe functional consequences of the presence of these AKAP-PKA-PDE4D complexes are inferred by the fact that PDE4D3 is phosphorylated by PKA. Thus, a local feedback regulation serves to control cAMP access to an anchored PKA (31, 32). An increase in cAMP causes activation of the PKA that in turn phosphorylates accessible substrates including the closely positioned PDE4D3. This phosphorylation causes PDE activation, a local decrease in cAMP, and a return of the PKA to a basal activity state.
Additional components of signaling are most likely present in the
AKAP-PKA-PDE complex because AKAP450 and its splice variant Yotiao also
bind PP1 and PP2A (33). Recently, it has been suggested that PDE4D3 is
part of the complex that includes the Ca2+ channel RyR,
PKA, mAKAP, and PP1 in cardiomyocytes (34, 35) (Fig. 2).
| |
PDE4s and Regulation of cAMP Diffusion |
|---|
Although cAMP is a small molecule that potentially
equilibrates throughout the cell in milliseconds (calculated diffusion rate 780 µm2 s
1), the diffusion of this
second messenger may be prevented either by physical barriers or rapid
decay due to degradation by PDEs.
Twenty years of investigation have indicated compartmentalization of
cAMP in cardiac myocytes (36) as well as other cells. Although they all
promote cAMP accumulation, 1- and 2-adrenergic agonists and PGE1
produce distinct patterns of protein phosphorylation in these cells and
distinct effects on contractility (36, 37). In addition, elegant work
by Jurevicius and Fishmeister (38) measuring L-type channel activation
by -adrenergic agonists has suggested that cAMP diffusion occurs
only in a limited fashion and that PDEs, particularly PDE4s, may
contribute to the prevention of this diffusion.
By modifying a cyclic nucleotide-gated channel to bind cAMP in the micromolar range, Karpen and coworkers (39) have developed a cAMP biosensor to study local cAMP concentration and diffusion. Use of these channels expressed in heterologous systems to measure cAMP-regulated Ca2+ currents has provided evidence that a pool of cAMP below the plasma membrane does not equilibrate rapidly with the bulk of the cytoplasm. More importantly, they have been able to show that a PDE4 is important for regulating the cAMP concentration in this "microdomain" and have suggested that PDE4s are rapidly activated when a GPCR is occupied by its ligand (39). Thus, a PDE4 regulation is likely involved in controlling cAMP access to its effectors close to the plasma membrane, the region most critical to signaling (Fig. 2).
A similar cAMP microdomain may be functioning in cardiac myocytes where
it has been shown that cAMP accumulation in response to -adrenergic
agonists occurs preferentially in a region overlapping with the Z band
and the T tubules (40). Even more significant, this preferential
accumulation is obliterated by the inhibition of PDE4s. Myomegalin is a
PDE4-interacting protein that may serve to anchor the long forms of
PDE4 close to the Z band in the vicinity of the L-type channels, RyR
and PKA, as indicated by immunolocalization data (34, 41-43).
| |
Other PDE4 Anchoring Proteins and Subcellular Targeting |
|---|
The interaction of PDE4s with different anchoring proteins, their inclusion in macromolecular signaling complexes, and localization in discrete compartments in the cell are probably the rule rather than the exception.
Among the different PDE4 variants, the short form PDE4A1 is recovered mostly in the particulate fraction of brain homogenates. Studies from Houslay and collaborators (44) have shown that this targeting is due to a unique amino terminus present in this variant. This domain has been characterized extensively and found to be the prototype of a domain (TAPAS-1) that binds lipids in the membrane bilayer (44). PDE4A1 binds to phosphatidic acid via this domain, thus anchoring this protein in the Golgi region in proximity to phospholipase A. Phosphatidic acid binding has been reported for other PDE4s suggesting a localization close to the membrane (45). Although phosphatidic acid binding increases the activity of PDE4 long forms, the exact physiological significance of the interaction with PDE4A1, in addition to targeting, remains to be elucidated.
A more dynamic localization of PDE4 to the plasma membrane in
proximity to GPCRs is suggested by the discovery of an interaction between PDE4 and -arrestin, a scaffold protein with the dual function of coordinating signaling molecules and receptor trafficking (46). In cells overexpressing the -adrenergic receptor, -arrestin and PDE4 are translocated to the membrane whereas this translocation is
absent in MEF cells deficient in -arrestin 1 and 2 (46). The
presence of a GPCR-arrestin-PDE4 complex obviously has important implications in receptor signaling and desensitization. Thus, -arrestin recruitment to the phosphorylated receptor brings a PDE to
the complex, contributing to the termination of the signal and
preventing the complex from further signaling through cAMP (46).
Several PDE4 long isoforms contain a polyproline motif that
interacts with SH3 domains of Fyn/Lyn kinases (7). Such a domain has
been mapped in human PDE4A4 and the orthologous rat PDE4A5 at the amino
terminus as well as in the linker domain between UCR2 and the catalytic
domain. Although it is unclear to what extent these PDEs are in complex
with the kinases in the intact cell, it is likely that other SH3
domain-containing proteins interact with PDE4s. It has been reported
that these polyprolines are required for targeting to the particulate
fraction in membrane ruffles and in a perinuclear region (7). Finally,
PDE4D5 has been shown to interact with RACK1 through its unique
amino-terminal domain (47).
| |
Other PDE4 Regulation by Phosphorylation: MAPK Feedback |
|---|
During studies on the expression of PDE4s, it was observed
that the recombinant PDE4B2 expressed in insect cells is phosphorylated by MAPK at a serine in a carboxyl-terminal SPS motif (48). The implications of this finding came into focus when it was demonstrated that PDE4D3 overexpressed in mammalian cells is phosphorylated in a
similar motif by MAPK leading to an inhibition of the catalytic activity (49). It has been proposed that this regulation of PDE4D and
other PDE4 long forms by MAPK constitutes feedback regulation. Inhibition of the PDE4 activity induces an increase in cAMP, and it has
been speculated that the local activation of PKA in turn suppresses the
MAPK cascade via phosphorylation of RAF (50). Pharmacological
manipulation of the aortic smooth muscle cells shows that PKA
phosphorylation and activation of PDE4D5 overcomes or obliterates the
initial inhibition due to MAPK phosphorylation (51). Further work is
required to understand the physiological significance of the intricate
positive and negative regulations. An increase in PDE4A activity has
also been observed after activation of the phosphatidylinositol
3-kinase signaling pathway (52).
| |
cAMP Gating and Long Term Feedback Regulations Involving PDE4 Expression |
|---|
In addition to short term regulation of PDE4 due to post-translational modifications, the expression of PDE4 is regulated at the transcriptional level. In both the PDE4B and PDE4D genes, a cAMP-regulated intronic promoter has been identified (53, 54). This promoter includes several potential cAMP regulatory elements as well as other elements involved in transcription. Hormonal stimulation in vitro or in vivo as well as pharmacological manipulation of intracellular cAMP causes large increases in PDE4D and PDE4B mRNA and the corresponding short form proteins (55, 56). In addition, mRNA stability may contribute to the overall increase in PDE4D and PDE4B mRNA (56). Other promoters present in the PDE4 genes also may be regulated by cAMP as an increase in PDE4D3 and PDE4D5 mRNA were recently reported after a sustained increase in cAMP (57, 58).
In vitro studies have implicated this long term induction of PDE4 in desensitization and long term cell adaptation as treatment with protein synthesis or PDE4 inhibitors to some extent reverses the desensitization state (2). In addition, mutations that chronically activate the cAMP signaling in vivo are associated with increased PDE4 expression (59). A better understanding of the function of this feedback has come from the analysis of two phenotypes in the PDE4-null mice. In the ovary, the growth and maturation of the follicle is dependent on the concerted action of the pituitary gonadotropin follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone (60). Both gonadotropins signal through cAMP and produce large increases in the mRNAs coding for the short forms of PDE4D. Ablation of the PDE4D gene causes a 75% decrease in the rate of ovulation and a consequent reduced fertility (22). More importantly, the pattern of gene expression required for follicle maturation/ovulation is disrupted, demonstrating that the PDE4D feedback regulation is critical in cAMP signaling and cell differentiation.
Secondly, expression of the PDE4B2 short form is
induced by activation of the Toll receptor-related signaling pathway.
In macrophages or monocytic cell lines as well as in circulating monocytes, LPS stimulation causes a large increase in PDE4B2
mRNA and protein (23, 61). In the PDE4B-null mice, where
this regulation is absent, LPS stimulation of tumor necrosis factor-
production is reduced 90% (23). This finding indicates that the
induction of PDE4B2 by LPS is a positive feedback regulation
required to remove a negative cAMP constraint. Indeed, it is well
established that cytokine production and activation of inflammatory
cells is under negative regulation by cAMP, which functions as a gating pathway (62). This finding is consistent with the pharmacological tenet
that PDE4 inhibition blocks inflammatory responses and therefore is a
promising therapeutic strategy for inflammatory disorders (21).
| |
Additional Functions of PDE4 Inferred by the Phenotype of the PDE4D Knock-out Mouse |
|---|
The analysis of the phenotype of the PDE4D-null mouse has provided additional insight into the critical role of PDE4 in cAMP homeostasis. This function is particularly evident in those cells where cAMP is involved in balancing the effect of several signaling pathways. Through binding to muscarinic cholinergic receptors, acetylcholine released from the parasympathetic nerves induces contraction of the smooth muscle of the airway. This parasympathetic control of the smooth muscle tone involves M1/M3 receptors coupled to phospholipase C activation and Ca2+ signaling, as well as M2 receptors coupled to adenylyl cyclase inhibition (63). Activation of cAMP signaling by epinephrine or other ligands that activate adenylyl cyclase counteracts the cholinergic responses by inducing relaxation. In mice deficient in PDE4D, cholinergic agonists do not produce airway contraction as assessed in vivo by whole body plethysmography or ex vivo by measuring tracheal ring contractility (64).2 The absence of a cholinergic-mediated contraction is likely due to an increased cAMP tone that follows ablation of the PDE4D in the airway. Indeed, cAMP levels are increased in the lungs of PDE4D knock-out mice. In addition, an increased sensitivity to agonists that activate adenylyl cyclase is present in this organ together with a decreased signaling through M2 cholinergic receptors that inhibit cyclase (64). Therefore, PDE4D is critical for the control of cAMP levels in the airway and the fine tuning of the sensitivity to contracting and relaxing inputs.
In a different paradigm, anesthesia, monitored in mice as
obliteration of the righting reflex, is induced by administration of
2-adrenergic agonists, and its duration is greatly reduced by the
specific 2 antagonist MK-912 (65). In mice deficient in PDE4D but
not PDE4B, the duration of anesthesia is reduced by more than 50%. The
2 antagonists have an additional minor effect whereas PDE4
inhibitors that shorten the anesthesia in wild type mice have no effect
in the PDE4D knock-out mice. These findings indicate that the decrease
in cAMP induced by the 2 agonist is disrupted by removal of a PDE4,
re-emphasizing the critical role of PDE4D in the control of the balance
between the positive and negative stimuli of the cAMP signaling
pathway. Furthermore, this observation is important from a
pharmacological standpoint as it has been proposed that the inhibition
of anesthesia in mice is a correlate of emesis in ferrets (65), a major
side effect produced by PDE4 inhibition.
| |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
|---|
We are indebted to many colleagues for their discussions and comments regarding this review and to Caren Spencer for editorial assistance.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
* This minireview will be reprinted in the 2003 Minireview Compendium, which will be available in January, 2004. The work done in the authors' laboratory is supported by National Institutes of Health Grants HD20788 and HL67674 and a grant from the Sandler Foundation.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Division of
Reproductive Biology, Dept. of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Dr., Stanford, CA
94305-5317. Tel.: 650-725-2452; Fax: 650-725-7102; E-mail:
marco.conti@stanford.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 18, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.R200029200
2 C. Mehats, submitted for publication.
| |
ABBREVIATIONS |
|---|
The abbreviations used are: GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; PDE, phosphodiesterase; UCR, upstream conserved region; TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone; AKAP, A kinase anchoring protein; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; PKA, protein kinase A; LPS, lipopolysaccharide.
| |
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 H.-F. Tang, Y.-H. Song, J.-C. Chen, J.-Q. Chen, and P. Wang Upregulation of Phosphodiesterase-4 in the Lung of Allergic Rats Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., April 15, 2005; 171(8): 823 - 828. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. P. Barnes, G. Livera, P. Huang, C. Sun, W. K. O'Neal, M. Conti, M. J. Stutts, and S. L. Milgram Phosphodiesterase 4D Forms a cAMP Diffusion Barrier at the Apical Membrane of the Airway Epithelium J. Biol. Chem., March 4, 2005; 280(9): 7997 - 8003. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Bradaia, F. Berton, S. Ferrari, and C. Luscher {beta}-Arrestin2, interacting with phosphodiesterase 4, regulates synaptic release probability and presynaptic inhibition by opioids PNAS, February 22, 2005; 102(8): 3034 - 3039. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. O. Nikolaev, S. Gambaryan, S. Engelhardt, U. Walter, and M. J. Lohse Real-time Monitoring of the PDE2 Activity of Live Cells: HORMONE-STIMULATED cAMP HYDROLYSIS IS FASTER THAN HORMONE-STIMULATED cAMP SYNTHESIS J. Biol. Chem., January 21, 2005; 280(3): 1716 - 1719. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Xiang, F. Naro, M. Zoudilova, S.-L. C. Jin, M. Conti, and B. Kobilka Phosphodiesterase 4D is required for {beta}2 adrenoceptor subtype-specific signaling in cardiac myocytes PNAS, January 18, 2005; 102(3): 909 - 914. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. G. Smith, F. Wang, K. N. Wilkinson, K. J. Savage, U. Klein, D. S. Neuberg, G. Bollag, M. A. Shipp, and R. C. T. Aguiar The phosphodiesterase PDE4B limits cAMP-associated PI3K/AKT-dependent apoptosis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma Blood, January 1, 2005; 105(1): 308 - 316. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Wu and P. Wang Per-Arnt-Sim domain-dependent association of cAMP-phosphodiesterase 8A1 with I{kappa}B proteins PNAS, December 21, 2004; 101(51): 17634 - 17639. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. Cheng, M. A. Thompson, H. J. Walker, C. E. Gray, M. M. Diaz Encarnacion, G. M. Warner, and J. P. Grande Differential regulation of mesangial cell mitogenesis by cAMP phosphodiesterase isozymes 3 and 4 Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, November 1, 2004; 287(5): F940 - F953. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. L. Asirvatham, S. G. Galligan, R. V. Schillace, M. P. Davey, V. Vasta, J. A. Beavo, and D. W. Carr A-Kinase Anchoring Proteins Interact with Phosphodiesterases in T Lymphocyte Cell Lines J. Immunol., October 15, 2004; 173(8): 4806 - 4814. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Abrahamsen, G. Baillie, J. Ngai, T. Vang, K. Nika, A. Ruppelt, T. Mustelin, M. Zaccolo, M. Houslay, and K. Tasken TCR- and CD28-Mediated Recruitment of Phosphodiesterase 4 to Lipid Rafts Potentiates TCR Signaling J. Immunol., October 15, 2004; 173(8): 4847 - 4858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Claveau, S. L. Chen, S. O'Keefe, D. M. Zaller, A. Styhler, S. Liu, Z. Huang, D. W. Nicholson, and J. A. Mancini Preferential Inhibition of T Helper 1, but Not T Helper 2, Cytokines in Vitro by L-826,141 [4-{2-(3,4-Bisdifluromethoxyphenyl)-2-{4-(1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-hydroxypropan-2-yl)-phenyl]-ethyl}-3-methylpyridine-1-oxide], a Potent and Selective Phosphodiesterase 4 Inhibitor J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., August 1, 2004; 310(2): 752 - 760. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Barber, G. S. Baillie, R. Bergmann, M. C. Shepherd, R. Sepper, M. D. Houslay, and G. V. Heeke Differential expression of PDE4 cAMP phosphodiesterase isoforms in inflammatory cells of smokers with COPD, smokers without COPD, and nonsmokers Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, August 1, 2004; 287(2): L332 - L343. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Mongillo, T. McSorley, S. Evellin, A. Sood, V. Lissandron, A. Terrin, E. Huston, A. Hannawacker, M. J. Lohse, T. Pozzan, et al. Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Analysis of cAMP Dynamics in Live Neonatal Rat Cardiac Myocytes Reveals Distinct Functions of Compartmentalized Phosphodiesterases Circ. Res., July 9, 2004; 95(1): 67 - 75. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. M. Fleming, M. C. Frame, and M. D. Houslay PDE4-regulated cAMP degradation controls the assembly of integrin-dependent actin adhesion structures and REF52 cell migration J. Cell Sci., May 1, 2004; 117(11): 2377 - 2388. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Q. Huai, Y. Liu, S. H. Francis, J. D. Corbin, and H. Ke Crystal Structures of Phosphodiesterases 4 and 5 in Complex with Inhibitor 3-Isobutyl-1-methylxanthine Suggest a Conformation Determinant of Inhibitor Selectivity J. Biol. Chem., March 26, 2004; 279(13): 13095 - 13101. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J.-Y. Park, Y.-Q. Su, M. Ariga, E. Law, S.-L. C. Jin, and M. Conti EGF-Like Growth Factors As Mediators of LH Action in the Ovulatory Follicle Science, January 30, 2004; 303(5658): 682 - 684. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. B. Bolger, A. McCahill, E. Huston, Y.-F. Cheung, T. McSorley, G. S. Baillie, and M. D. Houslay The Unique Amino-terminal Region of the PDE4D5 cAMP Phosphodiesterase Isoform Confers Preferential Interaction with {beta}-Arrestins J. Biol. Chem., December 5, 2003; 278(49): 49230 - 49238. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. H. Maurice, D. Palmer, D. G. Tilley, H. A. Dunkerley, S. J. Netherton, D. R. Raymond, H. S. Elbatarny, and S. L. Jimmo Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterase Activity, Expression, and Targeting in Cells of the Cardiovascular System Mol. Pharmacol., September 1, 2003; 64(3): 533 - 546. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. B. Bolger, A. H. Peden, M. R. Steele, C. MacKenzie, D. G. McEwan, D. A. Wallace, E. Huston, G. S. Baillie, and M. D. Houslay Attenuation of the Activity of the cAMP-specific Phosphodiesterase PDE4A5 by Interaction with the Immunophilin XAP2 J. Biol. Chem., August 29, 2003; 278(35): 33351 - 33363. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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