Advertisement
JBC

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

Originally published In Press as doi:10.1074/jbc.M405701200 on July 1, 2004

J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 279, Issue 37, 38797-38802, September 10, 2004
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
279/37/38797    most recent
M405701200v1
Right arrow Submit a Letter to Editor
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Gao, M. H.
Right arrow Articles by Hammond, H. K.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Gao, M. H.
Right arrow Articles by Hammond, H. K.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?

Adenylyl Cyclase Type VI Gene Transfer Reduces Phospholamban Expression in Cardiac Myocytes via Activating Transcription Factor 3*

Mei Hua Gao{ddagger}§, Tong Tang{ddagger}§, Tracy Guo§, Shu Qiang Sun§, James R. Feramisco{ddagger}, and H. Kirk Hammond{ddagger}§

From the {ddagger}Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego and the §Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California 92161

Received for publication, May 21, 2004 , and in revised form, June 25, 2004.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Cardiac-directed expression of adenylyl cyclase type VI (ACVI) increases stimulated cAMP production, improves heart function, and increases survival in cardiomyopathy. In contrast, pharmacological agents that increase intracellular levels of cAMP have detrimental effects on cardiac function and survival. We wondered whether effects that are independent of cAMP might be responsible for these salutary outcomes associated with ACVI expression. We therefore conducted a series of experiments focused on how gene transcription is influenced by ACVI in cultured neonatal rat cardiac myocytes, with a particular focus on genes that might influence cardiac function. We found that overexpression of ACVI down-regulated mRNA and protein expression of phospholamban, an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase. We determined that the cAMP-responsive-like element in the phospholamban (PLB) promoter was critical for down-regulation by ACVI. Overexpression of ACVI did not alter the expression of CREB, CREM, ATF1, ATF2, or ATF4 proteins. In contrast, overexpression of ACVI increased expression of ATF3 protein, a suppressor of transcription. Following ACVI gene transfer, when cardiac myocytes were stimulated with isoproterenol or NKH477, a water-soluble forskolin analog that directly stimulates AC, expression of ATF3 protein was increased even more, which correlated with reduced expression of PLB. We then showed that ACVI-induced ATF3 protein binds to the cAMP-responsive-like element on the PLB promoter and that overexpression of ATF3 in cardiac myocytes inhibits PLB promoter activity. These findings indicate that ACVI has effects on gene transcription that are not directly dependent on cAMP generation.


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Adenylyl cyclase (AC)1 is the effector molecule in the {beta}-adrenergic receptor-G-protein-AC signaling pathway in cardiac myocytes and other cells. Previous studies showed that the amount of AC sets a limit on the ability of cardiac myocytes to generate cAMP (1), and cardiac-directed expression of AC type VI (ACVI) has pronounced favorable effects on cardiovascular function in normal and failing hearts (2-6).

The mechanisms explaining these favorable effects of ACVI are not precisely known. The most direct explanation is that the benefits stem from increased intracellular levels of cAMP; this explanation is contrary to current dogma in heart failure which asserts that inotropic agents that increase cAMP are bad for the heart. Indeed, pharmacological agents that stimulate the {beta}-adrenergic receptor or decrease the breakdown of cAMP increase cardiac function but do not appear to prolong life (7-9). In contrast, ACVI, a dominant AC isoform in mammalian cardiac myocytes, improves global cardiac function, attenuates myocardial hypertrophy, and increases survival in murine cardiomyopathy (3, 4). However, when cardiac-directed {beta}-adrenergic receptor expression is used to treat this same model, life is shortened (10), underscoring the marked differences evoked by these signaling elements, both of which are associated with increased intracellular cAMP.

Because of the disparate results between {beta}-adrenergic receptor and AC expression in heart failure, we postulated that the salutary effects of AC expression may depend on mechanisms not directly linked with cAMP production per se. A suitable initial approach, we reasoned, would be to determine whether ACVI gene transfer (independently of cAMP generation) alters transcription of genes important in contractile function.

To investigate cAMP-independent events in cardiac myocytes, we focused on how ACVI affects transcriptional regulation and to what extent that effect is different from the effect evoked by agents that directly stimulate cAMP production. We found that ACVI, in the absence of {beta}-adrenergic receptor or AC stimulation, down-regulated the expression of genes containing the cAMP-responsive element (CRE). Specifically, phospholamban (PLB), an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase, was down-regulated by ACVI gene transfer, a result of increased expression of activating transcription factor-3 (ATF3), a transcriptional suppressor in the CRE-binding protein (CREB)/ATF family (11). In contrast, direct stimulation of {beta}-adrenergic receptors with isoproterenol or of AC with NKH477 increased PLB expression and did not alter expression of ATF3 protein.


   EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Detection of Gene Expression Using GeneArray System—The "mouse cAMP/Ca2+ signaling pathway finder" membrane was purchased from SuperArray Inc. (Frederick, MD). Among the 96 genes spotted on the membrane, 52 of them contained CRE or CRE-like elements, and others contained elements that respond to calcium. Neonatal rat cardiac myocytes from the following four experimental conditions were used in these experiments: uninfected; uninfected but stimulated with the forskolin analog NKH477 (10 µM); infected with adenovirus encoding ACVI (Ad.ACVI) at 600 virus particles (vp) per cell; and adenovirus encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (Ad.EGFP) at 600 vp/cell. Five micrograms of total RNA extracted from the cardiac myocytes from each condition was reverse-transcribed into cDNA in the presence of [{alpha}-32P]dCTP. The radioactive labeled cDNA probes were hybridized to the genes spotted on the GeneArray membrane.

Cloning of PLB Promoter and Site-directed Mutagenesis—The PLB promoter fragment from -156 to +64 bp (12) was cloned from rat DNA by PCR. The primers used in the PCR contain restriction enzyme sites NheI and XhoI at each end and the following sequences: PLBF, 5'-CTAGCTAGCTGAAGCACAACATGTTACCG-3'; PLBR, 5'-CCGCTCGAGTTAGTTGTGTGAAGTCTGGG-3'. The PCR was performed using a kit containing Pfu polymerase (Stratagene, San Diego, CA). The PCR product was subcloned into PCR 4 blunt-TOPO cloning vector (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and the sequences were confirmed by sequencing. The PLB promoter fragment was released from the TOPO vector by NheI and XhoI digestion and subcloned into pGL-3 vector (Promega, Madison, WI) in front of the luciferase gene to obtain the pPLB-luc reporter plasmid. To mutate the CRE-like site in the PLB promoter, site-directed mutagenesis was performed using the Quick-change kit (Stratagene, San Diego, CA). The primers used for mutating the CRE-like element were 5'-p-GTTGGGATTCCTATGGACCATAGTAAGACCTCCCTAGAATG-3' and 5'-p-CATTCTAGGGAGGTCTTACTATGGTCCATAGGAATCCCAACC-3'.

Neonatal Rat Cardiac Myocyte Isolation, Gene Transfer, and Stimulation—Cardiac myocytes from neonatal rats were isolated (1). Cells were infected 1 day after attachment to the plate with recombinant adenovirus (600 vp/cell) encoding enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) or ACVI with an AU1 tag (six amino acids, DTYRYI, derived from bovine papilloma virus-1) at the C terminus of the ACVI for protein detection. Stimulation with isoproterenol (10 µM) or NKH477 (10 µM) was performed 1 day after virus infection for 10 min (for change in phosphorylation) or 20 h (for gene expression).

Transfection and Luciferase Assay—Transfection of cardiac myocytes was performed using GeneShuttle-40 reagent (Qiagen, Carlsbad, CA). DNA and Geneshuttle-40 were diluted separately in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium without serum, and a 1:6 ratio of DNA to lipid was used. The diluted DNA and lipid were combined and incubated (23 °C, 30 min), and the mixture was transferred onto cultured cardiac myocytes. The luciferase assay was performed 48 h after transfection.

Luciferase activity of the reporter co-transfected with control plasmid was defined as 100%. In the experiments whose results are displayed in Fig. 3 and Fig. 7, the control plasmids (pAd and pCG) carrying the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoters were included to ensure that each transfection mixture contained the same amount of CMV promoter.



View larger version (8K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 3.
ACVI inhibits transcription of the PLB promoter through a CRE-like site. A, the normal PLB promoter or a mutant PLB promoter (mPLB) was linked to a luciferase reporter and co-transfected with pAd.ACVI (ACVI) or control plasmid pAd (Con) into cardiac myocytes. ACVI inhibited minimal PLB promoter activity. Mutation of the CRE-like element in the mini-PLB promoter greatly reduced the PLB promoter activity, and the suppressive effect of ACVI was diminished. B, the normal PLB promoter luciferase reporter was co-transfected with each of three expression vectors: control (pAd), ACVI, and CREB. Transfected cells were stimulated with NKH477 (10 µM) 1 day after transfection. The results showed the following: 1) the suppressive effect on the PLB promoter was specifically mediated by ACVI because the CREB construct did not have such effect; 2) the minimal PLB promoter cannot be activated by NKH477. Statistical analysis (3 x 2 ANOVA) showed that for each of the three constructs, there was no increase in activity with NKH477 stimulation compared with basal (B) activity. There were also no differences in activity between control and CREB (basal or stimulated). In contrast, the ACVI expression vector showed marked reduction in basal (p < 0.01) and stimulated (p < 0.01) activities compared with control and CREB vectors. C, the somatostatin promoter-luciferase reporter was co-transfected with pAd into cardiac myocytes, and transfected cells were stimulated with NKH477 (10 µM). NKH477 activates the minimal somatostatin promoter.

 



View larger version (12K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 7.
ATF3 inhibits transcription of the PLB promoter through a CRE-like site. The normal PLB promoter or a mutant PLB promoter (mPLB) was linked to a luciferase reporter and co-transfected with pCGATF3 (ATF3) or pCG (Con) into cardiac myocytes. ATF3 had a suppressive effect on minimal PLB promoter activity. Mutation of the CRE-like element in the mini-PLB promoter was associated with loss of PLB promoter activity, and the suppressive effect of ATF3 was diminished.

 
Immunofluorescence Staining—Cardiac myocytes were fixed with 10% formalin solution containing 4% formaldehyde (Sigma) for 15 min at 23 °C. Fixed cells were washed four times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Cells were blocked with normal rabbit serum for 1 h and incubated with primary antibodies including anti-AU1 (Babco, Berkeley, CA) for detection of ACVI at 1:1000 dilution, and anti-ATF3 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) at 1:50 dilution for 1 h at 23 °C. The cells were washed four times with PBS and then incubated for another hour with a secondary antibody that was conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate or rhodamine. Stained cells were imaged by fluorescence microscopy.

Western Blot and Northern Blot Analysis—Western blotting of cardiac myocyte extracts was performed according to the protocol developed by Hagiwara et al. (13). The CREB/ATF family proteins were detected using individual antiserum or phosphoserine 133-specific CREB antiserum. PLB protein was detected using a monoclonal anti-PLB antibody (ABR Affinity BioReagents, Golden, CO) at a dilution of 1:500. Northern blot analysis was performed as described previously (1). Twenty micrograms of total RNA obtained from cells from each condition was separated on a 1% agarose gel; PLB-specific mRNA was detected by using [{alpha}-32P]dCTP-labeled PLB probe that contained rat PLB cDNA.

Nuclear Extracts—Nuclear extracts were prepared as described previously (14). Cardiac myocytes were washed in PBS, and the cell pellets were resuspended in cell lysis buffer A containing 10 mM HEPES (pH 8.0), 1.5 mM MgCl2, 10 mM KCl, 0.5 mM dithiothreitol, 300 mM sucrose, 0.1% Nonidet P-40, and protease inhibitors mixture tablets (1 tablet dissolved in 50 ml of buffer A) (Roche Applied Science). They were homogenized 3-4 times on ice in a glass homogenizer by 10 strokes with pestle B. The homogenates were transferred into tubes and centrifuged in a Microfuge at 3000 rpm for 10 min. The nuclei pellets were washed once by adding buffer A without Nonidet P-40 and collected as above. Nuclei were lysed by adding buffer B containing 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.9), 420 mM NaCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM EDTA, 25% glycerol, and protease inhibitor mixture. Nuclei were homogenized as above, incubated on ice for 10 min, and centrifuged in a Microfuge at 13,000 rpm for 15 min at 4 °C. The supernatant was collected and stored in small aliquots at -80 °C.

Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA)—This assay was performed as described previously (14). The oligonucleotides (oligos) used as probes in EMSA contained the following sequences: plbCRE, 5'-GATTCCTATGTGATGTCATAAGACCT-3'; and plbCREm, 5'-GATTCCTATGGACCATAGTAAGACCT-3'. Double-stranded oligos were labeled by filling in the 3'-end C of the complementary strand with [{alpha}-32P]dCTP using Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase in the DECA-prime II kit (Ambion, Austin, TX). Nuclear extracts (10 µg) were incubated with the radioactive labeled probe (105 cpm) and 1 µg of poly-(dI-dC) in binding buffer containing 50 mM KCl, 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.9), 0.5 mM EDTA, 5% glycerol, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 1 mg/ml bovine serum albumin, and 0.1% Nonidet P-40 for overnight at 4 °C. The mixtures were then loaded onto 4% native polyacrylamide gels and electrophoresed in 0.5x TBE buffer (6 h, 23 °C). The gel was transferred onto Whatman No. 3MM paper, wrapped in a seal wrap, and exposed to an x-ray film at -80 °C. Competition with unlabeled oligos was performed by incubating cold oligos with nuclear extracts for 10 min before adding the probe. Supershifts with antibodies were performed by either incubating nuclear extracts with antibody overnight before adding the probe or by incubating nuclear extracts with the probe overnight and then adding antibodies for 30-60 min.

Statistics—Data are reported as mean ± S.E. unless otherwise stated. Comparisons between two group means were made by using Student's t test for unpaired data (two-tailed). Multiple group comparisons were conducted using ANOVA, and post hoc testing was conducted (only when overall p < 0.05) by Student's t test for unpaired data (two-tailed), with Bonferonni correction for multiple tests. The null hypothesis was rejected when p < 0.05.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Regulation of Transcription by ACVI Gene Transfer Versus Pharmacological Stimulation of AC—To determine whether overexpression of ACVI versus pharmacological stimulation of AC affected endogenous gene expression differently in cardiac myocytes, we used gene transcript profiling. The results of this initial screen of selected genes indicated that ACVI gene transfer was associated with reduced expression of PLB, {beta}1-adrenergic receptor, and atrial natriuretic factor. In contrast, expression of these genes was increased by direct AC stimulation with NKH477 (Fig. 1).



View larger version (45K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 1.
ACVI gene transfer versus AC stimulation on mRNA expression, initial screen. Total RNA from neonatal rat cardiac myocytes was reverse-transcribed into cDNA in the presence of [{alpha}-32P]dCTP. The radioactive labeled probes were used to hybridize with the cDNA on GeneArray membranes (the cAMP/Ca2+ pathway finder, see "Experimental Procedures"). This initial screen suggested that PLB expression was reduced by ACVI gene transfer but increased by pharmacological stimulation of AC. Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) and {beta}1-adrenergic receptor ({beta}1AR) expression also appeared to be increased by AC stimulation but decreased by ACVI gene transfer. Control, neonatal rat cardiac myocytes alone; Ad.EGFP, after infection with adenovirus encoding EGFP; Ad.ACVI, after infection with adenovirus encoding ACVI; NKH, after incubation with NKH447 (10 µM), a water-soluble forskolin analog that directly stimulates adenylyl cyclase.

 
ACVI Reduces PLB Expression—To confirm the findings obtained from the gene transcript profiling experiments, we selected PLB for further studies. We analyzed PLB expression by Northern blotting and found that PLB mRNA was reduced by ACVI gene transfer into cardiac myocytes (Fig. 2A) and that stimulation with NKH477 was associated with further reduction in PLB mRNA (Fig. 2B). Gene transfer of an AC that lacks the transmembrane domain had no effect, suggesting that the effects on PLB were ACVI-specific. Reduced PLB expression by ACVI gene transfer was viral dose-related; increased vp/cell ratio was associated with a greater reduction in PLB mRNA (Fig. 2A). In addition to reduced PLB mRNA, PLB protein was also reduced by overexpression of ACVI (Fig. 2C). In contrast, NKH477 increased PLB mRNA expression (Fig. 2B).



View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 2.
ACVI reduces PLB expression. A, PLB mRNA was reduced by overexpression of ACVI. Neonatal rat cardiac myocytes were infected with different amounts of adenovirus encoding ACVI or EGFP. Twenty micrograms of total RNA isolated from neonatal rat cardiac myocytes was loaded in each lane and hybridized with PLB cDNA probe. B, PLB mRNA was down-regulated by overexpression of ACVI but increased by AC stimulation with NKH447. All adenoviruses were used at 600 vp/cell. NKH477 (10 µM) was added 20 h after gene transfer. Ad.mAC, a mutant form of AC that lacks the transmembrane domain, had no effect, suggesting that the effects on PLB were ACVI-specific. ACVI, Ad.ACVI; GFP, Ad.EGFP; Mini AC, Ad.mAC. C, PLB protein expression was reduced by ACVI. Twenty micrograms of protein from lysates of neonatal rat cardiac myocytes were loaded per lane and separated by SDS-PAGE. PLB protein was detected using an anti-PLB antibody. Lane 1, Ad.EGFP; lane 2, Ad.ACVI; lane 3, isoproterenol (10 µM); lane 4, NKH477 (10 µM); lane 5, Ad.ACVI and isoproterenol; lane 6, Ad.EGFP and isoproterenol; lane 7, Ad.ACVI and NKH477; and lane 8, Ad.EGFP and NKH477. Results indicate that ACVI gene transfer is associated with reduced PLB protein content (lane 2 versus lane 1). Ad.ACVI plus isoproterenol was associated with a greater reduction of PLB protein (lane 5 versus lanes 3 and 6). Ad.ACVI plus NKH477 stimulation also leads to marked down-regulation of PLB protein (lane 7 versus lanes 4 and 8).

 
ACVI Reduces Transcription through CRE or CRE-like Element—The rat minimal PLB promoter activity resides in a fragment from -159 to +64 bp (12). Although there is no consensus CRE element (TGACGTCA) in that region, there is a CRE-like element TGATGTCA located at -58 bp in the PLB promoter. By using a luciferase reporter assay system, we studied the effect of ACVI on the activity of the PLB promoter. In a transient transfection assay, the minimal PLB promoter fragment showed relatively high activity when co-transfected with the pAd vector carrying the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter. However, co-transfection of the reporter with pAd.ACVI reduced its activity (p = 0.024) (Fig. 3A). To determine the importance of the CRE-like element, the CRE-like site was mutated into GACCATAG (Active Motif, Carlsbad, CA) through site-directed mutagenesis, and the mutant promoter fragment was linked to the luciferase reporter gene and used in transient transfection assays as above. Mutation of CRE-like element was associated with marked reduction of basal PLB activity, and the suppressive effect of ACVI on the promoter was absent (Fig. 3A). These results suggest that the CRE-like element in the PLB promoter plays an important role in down-regulation of PLB by ACVI.

In contrast to the inhibitory effect of pAd.ACVI on reporter activity (Fig. 3A), co-transfection of the reporter with a CREB expression plasmid (pcDNA3flagCREB; a gift from Dr. Marc Montminy, Salk Research Institute) had no effect (Fig. 3B). NKH477 stimulation of cardiac myocytes transfected with the PLB promoter-luciferase reporter construct did not affect minimal PLB promoter activity, even in the presence of CREB (Fig. 3B). Statistical analysis (3 x 2 ANOVA) showed that for each of the constructs there was no increase in activity with NKH477 stimulation. There were also no differences in activity between control and CREB (basal or stimulated). In contrast, the ACVI expression vector showed marked reduction in basal (p < 0.01) and stimulated (p < 0.01) activities compared with the control construct. Finally, the ACVI expression vector showed marked reduction in basal (p < 0.01) and stimulated (p < 0.01) activities compared with CREB as well.

NKH477 stimulation of cardiac myocytes transfected with the somatostatin promoter-luciferase reporter construct (a gift from Dr. Marc Montminy, Salk Research Institute) significantly activated somatostatin promoter activity (p < 0.019) (Fig. 3C), which may have resulted from activated CREB that bound to the consensus CRE site (TGACGTCA) in this promoter. Our results suggest that the suppressive effect of ACVI is mediated through the CRE-like element in the PLB promoter, but activation of endogenous PLB transcription by NKH477 is not mediated through the CRE-like element in the minimal PLB promoter.

Overexpression of ACVI Increases ATF3 Expression—To determine the mechanism by which ACVI down-regulates PLB expression, we measured the expression of transcription factors in the CREB/ATF families in response to ACVI gene transfer. We found that Ad.ACVI (600 vp/cell) did not alter the expression of CREB, CREM, ATF1, ATF2, and ATF4 proteins. However, the expression of ATF3 was increased (Fig. 4A, 1st and 2nd lanes versus 5th lane). Following ACVI gene transfer, ATF3 protein expression was further increased by isoproterenol or NKH477 stimulation (Fig. 4A, 6th and 7th lanes; Fig. 4B), which correlated with a further reduction in PLB expression (Fig. 2C). ATF3 expression was maximal at 600 vp/cell (Fig. 4B). In contrast, stimulation of Ad.EGFP-infected cardiac myocytes with isoproterenol or NKH477 had no effect on ATF3 expression (Fig. 4A, 1st and 2nd lanes versus 3rd and 4th lanes). Phosphorylation of CREB was mildly increased by ACVI gene transfer (Fig. 4A, 5th lane) but increased to a much greater degree upon stimulation with isoproterenol or NKH447 (6th and 7th lanes).



View larger version (68K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 4.
Western blot analysis of CREB/ATF family proteins. A, total cell lysates were harvested in 1x SDS sample buffer after infection with Ad.EGFP or Ad.ACVI (600 vp/cell) and separated by SDS-PAGE. Expression of protein was detected using specific antibody to each member of the CREB/ATF family. Con, untreated neonatal rat cardiac myocytes; -, no additional treatment; Iso, isoproterenol (10 µM); NKH, NKH447 (10 µM). ATF3 protein expression was increased by ACVI gene transfer. B, viral dosage versus expression of ATF3 protein. Rat cardiac myocytes were infected with Ad.ACVI or Ad.EGFP at 200, 600, and 2400 vp/cell for 2 days. After the first 24-h period, cardiac myocytes were stimulated with isoproterenol (10 µM) or NKH477 (10 µM) for 20 h. ATF3 protein, detected by immunoblotting, showing increased expression with 600 vp/cell versus 200 vp/cell.

 
To establish that increased ATF3 protein was present in the nuclei, we used anti-ATF3 antibody to detect ATF3 in cardiac myocytes infected by Ad.ACVI. We detected nuclear presence of ATF3 following Ad.ACVI gene transfer but much less in uninfected cells (Fig. 5).



View larger version (34K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 5.
ATF3 protein located in the nuclei of myocytes after ACVI gene transfer. Immunofluorescence staining with the anti-AU1 antibody for the expression of ACVI (green) and anti-ATF3 antibody (red) showed membrane staining of ACVI and nuclear localization of ATF3 in Ad.ACVI virus-infected myocytes (top panel), and very little ACVI or ATF3 in uninfected myocytes (bottom panel).

 
The Effects of ACVI Gene Transfer on PLB Expression Involve ATF3—Our results suggest that ACVI gene transfer reduces PLB gene expression via increased expression of ATF3. To confirm this, using EMSA analysis we examined whether ATF3 binds to a CRE-like motif derived from the PLB promoter. Upon incubation of [{alpha}-32P]dCTP-labeled oligos containing the CRE-like motif with nuclear extracts from Ad.ACVI-infected cardiac myocytes, multiple DNA-protein complexes were formed (Fig. 6, lane 1). A subset of these complexes was found to supershift when an anti-ATF3 antibody was added to the mixture after complexes had formed (Fig. 6, lane 2). A shift was also seen when the anti-ATF3 antibody was incubated (overnight) with the nuclear extract prior to adding the labeled probe (Fig. 6, lane 4). On the other hand, we did not detect supershifted bands after adding an anti-CREM antibody (a gift from Dr. Marc Montminy, Salk Research Institute) under these same conditions (Fig. 6, lanes 3 and 5). CREM can act as either a transcriptional activator or suppressor by interacting with CRE or CRE-like element. A transcriptional suppressor of CREM was identified in cardiac myocytes (15). Likewise, under these two conditions, we did not detect supershifted complexes after adding the anti-ATF3 antibody complexes formed with nuclear extracts from Ad.EGFP-infected cardiac myocytes (Fig. 6, lanes 9 and 11).



View larger version (56K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 6.
ATF3 binds to CRE-like element in the PLB promoter. A radiolabeled PLB oligomer containing the CRE-like sequences (TGATGTCA) was incubated with nuclear extracts (nucl. extr.) of cardiac myocytes after infection with Ad.ACVI or Ad.EGFP. DNA-protein complexes were analyzed in EMSA as described under "Experimental Procedures." Lane 1, ACVI nuclear extract; lanes 2-7, same as in lane 1 but in the presence of anti-ATF3 antibody (lanes 2 and 4) and anti-CREM antibody (lanes 3 and 5). Lanes 2 and 3, antibodies were added after incubated nuclear extract with probe overnight. Lanes 4 and 5, antibodies were incubated with nuclear extract overnight, and then the labeled probe was added to the reaction mixture. Lane 6, a 100-fold unlabeled PLB oligomer was included in the reaction mixture; lane 7, a 100-fold unlabeled mutant oligomer was included in the reaction mixture. Lanes 8-14 correlated with lanes 1-7 but in the presence of Ad.EGFP nuclear extract. Lanes 15 and 16, a radiolabeled mutant PLB oligomer was incubated with nuclear extracts of Ad.ACVI (lane 15) and Ad.EGFP (lane 16). Arrow points to the complexes supershifted by anti-ATF3 antibody. These results indicated that ATF3 protein specifically binds to the CRE-like element in the PLB promoter.

 
To determine the specificity of oligonucleotide binding of the complexes, unlabeled oligos as well as oligos with the mutated CRE site were used in the EMSA. All DNA-protein complexes were abolished with an excess amount of unlabeled wild type oligos but not with the same amount of unlabeled mutant oligos (Fig. 6, lanes 6 versus 7 and lanes 13 versus 14). Moreover, no protein was found bound to the mutated CRE probe (Fig. 6, lanes 15 and 16). Taken together, these results offer strong support that ATF3 specifically binds to the CRE-like motif found in the PLB promoter.

Next, we examined whether ATF3 directly alters PLB promoter activity. In a transient transfection assay, the minimal PLB promoter-luciferase reporter construct was co-transfected into cardiac myocytes with an ATF3 expression plasmid (16). ATF3 inhibited PLB promoter activity by >80% (p < 0.0006). Furthermore, when the CRE-like element was mutated, ATF3 no longer suppressed PLB promoter activity (Fig. 7). These results confirmed our prediction that ATF3 not only bound to the CRE-like element but also suppressed the minimal PLB promoter activity.


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
ACVI Alters the Expression of PLB and ATF3—In the present study, we have determined the effects of ACVI gene transfer on CRE-mediated gene transcription. We found that ACVI reduces PLB expression and increases the expression of ATF3, a transcriptional suppressor in the CREB/ATF3 family. Upon stimulation with isoproterenol or NKH477, PLB expression is further reduced, and ATF3 expression is further increased. We also demonstrated that ATF3 binds to the CRE-like element in the minimal promoter of PLB and reduces the activity of the PLB promoter. In contrast, stimulation through the {beta}-adrenergic receptor (isoproterenol) or direct stimulation of AC (NKH447) had directionally opposite effects on PLB expression, and no effect on ATF3 expression.

Expression and Regulation of PLB Gene—The 5'-flanking promoter sequences of the PLB gene have been partially characterized from chicken (17), mouse (18), human (19), and rat (12, 20). The minimal promoter activity of rat PLB is in a region from -159 to +64 bp (-159/+64) (12). Analysis of rat PLB 5'-untranslated region revealed a conserved phospholamban promoter element 1 (-159/-125), GATA (-101/-96), CAAT box (-82/-78), M-CAT-like (-67/-62), TATA-like box (-51/-47), and E box (-11/-6). However, the CRE-like element (TGATGTCA) at -50/-57 was not characterized previously. Two CRE-like elements in the chicken PLB promoter were recognized (17), but their roles were not characterized. We have identified and characterized the CRE-like element in the rat PLB promoter, and we showed that it is critical for the basal activity of the PLB promoter. Mutation of this element leads to loss of PLB promoter activity. We also showed that ACVI gene transfer reduces the expression of PLB via increased expression of ATF3 with subsequent binding to the CRE-like element of PLB.

Significance of Reduced PLB Expression by ACVI—PLB plays an important role in the regulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium cycling by binding to sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase, thereby inhibiting its activity (21). Reduction of PLB through antisense suppression or genetic ablation increased sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium cycling and improved cardiac myocyte survival and cardiac function (22, 23). In contrast, overexpression of PLB through an increase in PLB promoter activity was associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (24), and cardiac-directed expression of PLB resulted in depressed contractility and cardiomyopathy after {beta}-adrenergic receptor stimulation (25). Reduced PLB expression resulting from ACVI expression would be expected to have a favorable impact on cardiac function and may be an important mechanism by which AC, in contrast to other elements that increase intracellular cAMP, has a favorable effect in the failing heart.

Expression and Function of ATF3—Expression of ATF3 is induced by growth-stimulating factors (fibroblast growth factor and epidermal growth factor), cytokines (interleukin-4), and stress signals (ionizing radiation, ultraviolet light, and methyl methanesulfonate) (11). In human neuroblastoma SK-N-MC cells, it was found that expression of ATF3 was induced by forskolin (26). However, forskolin did not induce the expression of ATF3 in cardiac myocytes. Expression of ATF3 can also be induced by adenovirus 12S-E1A protein (27). Because the E1 region encoding E1AB proteins was deleted from the recombinant adenovirus vector used in the present study, there is no expression of E1 proteins from Ad.ACVI or Ad.EGFP. Furthermore, our findings were specific to the vector expressing ACVI and were not seen with Ad.EGFP, confirming that the effect is transgene-specific.

Precise details regarding the biological roles of ATF3 is an evolving area, with some insights provided from experiments in which ATF3 is overexpressed or deleted. For example, overexpression of ATF3 in neuronal cells inhibited c-Jun N-terminal kinase-induced neuronal death and induced neurite elongation (28) and co-expression of ATF3 with c-Jun increased neurite sprouting (29). In cardiac myocytes, ATF3 overexpression was associated with reduced doxorubicin-induced apoptosis (30), an effect also observed in endothelial cells subjected to tumor necrosis factor-{alpha}-induced apoptosis in endothelial cells (31). However, ATF3 accelerates camptothecin-induced apoptosis in human epithelioid carcinoma cells and fibrosarcoma cells (32). When ATF3 is expressed in cardiac myocytes chronically (transgenic mice), atrial and ventricular hypertrophy result (33). Constitutive expression of ATF3 in murine pancreatic {beta} cells was associated with abnormal islet formation and {beta}-cell deficiency (34), and targeted deletion of ATF3 provided partial protection from cytokine-induced {beta}-cell apoptosis.

Thus, increased ATF3 may be antiapoptotic and, when expressed chronically in all cells in the heart, is associated with myocardial hypertrophy, histological abnormalities, and reduced contractile function. However, in ACVI transgenic mice of three different lines, examined for up to 20 months of age, we do not find myocardial hypertrophy or any deleterious effects (2-4,6), underscoring the differences between ATF3 overexpression per se versus ACVI overexpression.

What Are the Endogenous Targets of ACVI?—ACVI increases the expression of ATF3 and increases phosphorylation of CREB when stimulated with isoproterenol or NKH477. Both transcriptional factors regulate gene transcription through CRE or CRE-like elements. ATF3 has more flexibility in binding to CRE or CRE-like elements (16). It will be of interest to determine how ATF3, a suppressor, and phospho-CREB, an activator, differentially regulate their targets in response to ACVI. This will require identifying the endogenous targets of ACVI. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (CHIP) and CHIP-chip are powerful means for determining endogenous targets of transcriptional factors (35, 36). By applying these methods in combination with anti-ATF3 or anti-CREB antibody, we will identify true target genes of ACVI.

In conclusion, overexpression of ACVI in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes selectively reduces CRE-mediated gene transcription in a cAMP-independent manner via increased expression of ATF3 protein, a transcriptional suppressor. This effect of ACVI on CRE-mediated transcription is opposite the effects from direct activation of {beta}-adrenergic receptor or adenylyl cyclase using pharmacological agents. These findings indicate that ACVI has effects on gene transcription that are not directly dependent on cAMP generation.


   FOOTNOTES
 
* This work was supported by NHLBI Grant 1P01 [PDB] HL66941 from the National Institutes of Health (to H. K. H. and J. R. F.) and a Department of Veterans Affairs merit award (to H. K. H.). The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact. Back

To whom correspondence should be addressed: University of California, San Diego, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, 111-A, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr., San Diego, CA 92161. Tel.: 858-552-8585 (ext. 3542); Fax: 858-642-6213; E-mail: khammond{at}ucsd.edu.

1 The abbreviations used are: AC, adenylyl cyclase; ACVI, adenylyl cyclase type VI; PLB, phospholamban; CRE, cAMP-responsive element; vp, virus particles; Ad.EGFP, adenovirus encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein; CMV, cytomegalovirus; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; ANOVA, analysis of variance; CREB, cAMP-response element-binding protein; oligos, oligonucleotides; EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay; ATF3, activating transcription factor-3; CHIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation; CREM, cAMP-response element modulator. Back


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Drs. Marc Montminy and N. Chin Lai for reviewing the manuscript and Dr. Tsonwin Hai for providing the pCG and pATF3 plasmids.



   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Gao, M. H., Ping, P., Post, S., Insel, P.A., Tang, R., and Hammond, H. K. (1998) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95, 1038-1043[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Gao, M. H., Lai, N. C., Roth, D. M., Zhou, J., Anzai, T., Dalton, N., and Hammond, H. K. (1999) Circulation 99, 1618-1622[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Roth, D. M., Gao, M. H., Lai, N. C., Drumm, J., Dalton, N., Zhou, J. Y., Zhu, J., Entrikin, D., and Hammond, H. K. (1999) Circulation 99, 3099-3102[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Roth, D. M., Bayat, H., Drumm, J. D., Gao, M. H., Swaney, J. S., Ander, A., and Hammond, H. K. (2002) Circulation 105, 1989-1994[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Lai, N. C., Roth, D. M., Gao, M. H., Fine, S., Head, B. P., Zhu, J., McKirnan, M. D., Kwong, C., Dalton, N., Urasawa, K., Roth, D. A., and Hammond, H. K. (2000) Circulation 102, 2396-2401[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. Gao, M. H., Bayat, H., Zhou, J. Y., Roth, D. M., Drumm, J. D., Burhan, J., and Hammond, H. K. (2002) Cardiovasc. Res. 56, 197-204[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Krell, M. J., Kline, E. M., Bates, E. R., Hodgson, J. M., Dilworth, L. R., Laufer, N., Vogel, R. A., and Pitt, B. (1986) Am. Heart J. 112, 787-791[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  8. Ikram H., and Crozier, I. G. (1990) Lancet 336, 517-518[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  9. Packer, M., Carver, J. R., Rodeheffer, R. J., Ivanhoe, R. J., DiBianco, R., Zeldis, S. M., Hendrix, G. H., Bommer, W. J., Elkayam, U., and Kukin, M. L. (1991) New Engl. J. Med. 325, 1468-1475[Abstract]
  10. Dorn, G. W., II, Tepe, N. M., Lorenz, J. N., Koch, W. J., and Liggett, S. B. (1999) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 96, 6400-6405[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Hai, T., Wolfgang, C. D., Marsee, D. K., Allen, A. E., and Sivaprasad, U. (1999) Gene Expr. 7, 321-335[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  12. McTiernan, C. F., Lemster, B. H., Frye, C. S., Johns, D. C., and Feldman, A. M. (1999) J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 31, 2137-2153[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  13. Hagiwara, M., Brindle, P., Harootunian, A., Armstrong, R., Rivier, J., Vale, W., Tsien, R., and Montminy, M. R. (1993) Mol. Cell. Biol. 13, 4852-4859[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Gao, M. H., Morgan, I., and Vogt, P. K. (1996) Cancer Res. 56, 4229-4235[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Muller, F. U., Boknik, P., Knapp, J., Neumann, J., Vahlensieck, U., Oetjen, E., Scheld, H. H., and Schmitz, W. (1998) FASEB J. 12, 1191-1199[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  16. Wolfgang, C. D., Liang, G., Okamoto, Y., Allen, A. E., and Hai, T. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 16865-16870[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  17. Toyofuku, T., and Zak, R. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 5375-5383[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  18. Haghighi, K., Kadambi, V. J., Koss, K. L., Luo, W., Harrer, J. M., Ponniah, S., Zhou, Z., and Kranias, E. G. (1997) Gene (Amst.) 203, 199-207[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  19. McTiernan, C. F., Frye, C. S., Lemster, B. H., Kinder, E. A., Ogletree-Hughes, M. L., Moravec, C. S., and Feldman, A. M. (1999) J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 31, 679-692[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  20. Johns, D. C., and Feldman, A. M. (1992) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 188, 927-933[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  21. Brittsan, A. G., and Kranias, E. G. (2000) J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 32, 2131-2139[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  22. del Monte, F., Harding, S. E., Dec, G. W., Gwathmey, J. K., and Hajjar, R. J. (2002) Circulation 105, 904-907[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  23. Luo, W., Grupp, I. L., Harrer, J., Ponniah, S., Grupp, G., Duffy, J. J., Doetschman, T., and Kranias, E. G. (1994) Circ. Res. 75, 401-409[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Minamisawa, S., Sato, Y., Tatsuguchi, Y., Fujino, T., Imamura, S., Uetsuka, Y., Nakazawa, M., and Matsuoka, R. (2003) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 304, 1-4[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  25. Dash, R., Kadambi, V., Schmidt, A. G., Tepe, N. M., Biniakiewicz, D., Gerst, M. J., Canning, A. M., Abraham, W. T., Hoit, B. D., Liggett, S. B., Lorenz, J. N., Dorn, G. W., II, and Kranias, E. G. (2001) Circulation 103, 889-896[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Chu, H. M., Tan, Y., Kobierski, L. A., Balsam, L. B., and Comb, M. J. (1994) Mol. Endocrinol. 8, 59-68[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  27. Hagmeyer, B. M., Duyndam, M. C., Angel, P., de Groot, R. P., Verlaan, M., Elfferich, P., van der Eb, A., and Zantema, A. (1996) Oncogene 12, 1025-1032[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  28. Nakagomi, S., Suzuki, Y., Namikawa, K., Kiryu-Seo, S., and Kiyama, H. (2003) J. Neurosci. 23, 5187-5196[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Pearson, A. G., Gray, C. W., Pearson, J. F., Greenwood, J. M., During, M. J., and Dragunow, M. (2003) Mol. Brain Res. 120, 38-45[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  30. Nobori, K., Ito, H., Tamamori-Adachi, M., Adachi, S., Ono, Y., Kawauchi, J., Kitajima, S., Marumo, F., and Isobe, M. (2002) J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 34, 1387-1397[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  31. Kawauchi, J., Zhang, C., Nobori, K., Hashimoto, Y., Adachi, M. T., Noda, A., Sunamori, M., and Kitajima, S. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 39025-39034[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Mashima, T., Udagawa, S., and Tsuruo, T. (2001) J. Cell. Physiol. 188, 352-358[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  33. Okamoto, Y., Chaves, A., Chen, J., Kelley, R., Jones, K., Weed, H. G., Gardner, K. L., Gangi, L., Yamaguchi, M., Klomkleaw, W., Nakayama, T., Hamlin, R. L., Carnes, C., Altschuld, R., Bauer, J., and Hai, T. (2001) Am. J. Pathol. 159, 639-650[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  34. Hartman, M. G., Lu, D., Kim, M. L., Kociba, G. J., Shukri, T., Buteau, J., Wang, X., Frankel, W. L., Guttridge, D., Prentki, M., Grey, S. T., Ron, D., and Hai, T. (2004) Mol. Cell. Biol. 24, 5721-5732[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  35. Weinmann, A. S., Bartley, S. M., Zhang, T., Zhang, M. Q., and Farnham, P. J. (2001) Mol. Cell. Biol. 21, 6820-6832[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  36. Martone, R., Euskirchen, G., Bertone, P., Hartman, S., Royce, T. E., Luscombe, N. M., Rinn, J. L., Nelson, F. K., Miller, P., Gerstein, M., Weissman, S., and Snyder, M. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 100, 12247-12252[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Complore Complore   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati    What's this?


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 CirculationHome page
G. Lewin, M. Matus, A. Basu, K. Frebel, S. P. Rohsbach, A. Safronenko, M. D. Seidl, F. Stumpel, I. Buchwalow, S. Konig, et al.
Critical Role of Transcription Factor Cyclic AMP Response Element Modulator in {beta}1-Adrenoceptor-Mediated Cardiac Dysfunction
Circulation, January 6, 2009; 119(1): 79 - 88.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
M. H. Gao, T. Tang, T. Guo, A. Miyanohara, T. Yajima, K. Pestonjamasp, J. R. Feramisco, and H. K. Hammond
Adenylyl Cyclase Type VI Increases Akt Activity and Phospholamban Phosphorylation in Cardiac Myocytes
J. Biol. Chem., November 28, 2008; 283(48): 33527 - 33535.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 DiabetesHome page
D. Li, X. Yin, E. J. Zmuda, C. C. Wolford, X. Dong, M. F. White, and T. Hai
The Repression of IRS2 Gene by ATF3, a Stress-Inducible Gene, Contributes to Pancreatic {beta}-Cell Apoptosis
Diabetes, March 1, 2008; 57(3): 635 - 644.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 CirculationHome page
T. Takahashi, T. Tang, N. C. Lai, D. M. Roth, B. Rebolledo, M. Saito, W. Y.W. Lew, P. Clopton, and H. K. Hammond
Increased Cardiac Adenylyl Cyclase Expression Is Associated With Increased Survival After Myocardial Infarction
Circulation, August 1, 2006; 114(5): 388 - 396.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
279/37/38797    most recent
M405701200v1
Right arrow Submit a Letter to Editor
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Gao, M. H.
Right arrow Articles by Hammond, H. K.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Gao, M. H.
Right arrow Articles by Hammond, H. K.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
 All ASBMB Journals   Molecular and Cellular Proteomics 
 Journal of Lipid Research   ASBMB Today 
Copyright © 2004 by the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.
Advertisement
spacer
Advertisement
Advertisement