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J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 279, Issue 49, 51433-51441, December 3, 2004
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From the Departments of Biochemistry and Nutritional Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211
Received for publication, July 23, 2004 , and in revised form, August 9, 2004.
| ABSTRACT |
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| INTRODUCTION |
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Movement of zinc into and out of cells and subcellular organelles is mediated by zinc transporter proteins. In many organisms, zinc uptake is mediated by members of the ZIP family of metal ion transporters. For example, the ZupT protein of Escherichia coli is involved the uptake of zinc (4). In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, zinc acquisition is largely mediated by the Zrt1 and Zrt2 transporters (5, 6). In mammals, the Zip1, Zip2, Zip3, LIV-1 (Zip6), KE4 (Zip7), and BIGM103 (Zip8) proteins have been implicated in zinc uptake in a variety of cell and tissue types (713). The importance of ZIP transporters in dietary zinc uptake in mammals has recently become clear from studies of acrodermatitis enteropathica (AE).1 AE is a recessive inherited disease of humans that causes impaired absorption of dietary zinc (1417). Moreover, fibroblasts isolated from AE patients have decreased zinc uptake activity (18, 19). These results suggested that AE is caused by mutations affecting a protein responsible for zinc transport into intestinal enterocytes and possibly other cells. Support for this hypothesis was obtained with the cloning of the AE gene, SLC39A4, which encodes a ZIP family zinc transporter designated Zip4 (2022). Consistent with its proposed role in dietary zinc uptake, SLC39A4 mRNA was detected throughout the small intestine. Consistent with the control of zinc absorption, mouse Zip4 expression and localization is regulated by zinc status (22). Slc39A4 mRNA levels are elevated in the intestines of animals fed low zinc diets and reduced when dietary zinc is high. We have also recently shown that mZip4 activity is regulated post-translationally in cultured cells; zinc stimulates the endocytosis of the mZip4 protein thereby decreasing zinc uptake activity (23). This observation is consistent with in vivo data showing that, under zinc deficiency conditions, the mZip4 protein is localized to the apical surface of enterocytes and moves to intracellular sites upon zinc repletion (22). Thus, both transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms are likely to regulate Zip4 activity in vivo.
Some results indicate that at least one additional zinc transporter is present on the apical surface of intestinal enterocytes and involved in dietary zinc uptake. First, among the mutations in SLC39A4 gene associated with AE were several mutations that are likely to completely abolish the transport function of the Zip4 protein (20, 21, 24, 25) yet the symptoms of AE can be ameliorated by increased levels of dietary zinc. Furthermore, some AE mutations fail to map to the same chromosomal region as SLC39A4 (20). Gitschier and co-workers (20, 26) identified a possible candidate for this transporter, a ZIP protein that they named provisionally as "hORF1" that is now designated as "Zip5." This proposed role was especially intriguing given that the Expressed Sequence Tag sequence databases suggested that the corresponding gene, SLC39A5, was expressed in the gastrointestinal tract. In this report, we describe the characterization of the Zip5 protein and address its possible role as an apical zinc uptake transporter. Our studies indicate that Zip5 is a zinc transporter, but, in contrast to our initial hypothesis, this protein is localized to the basolateral and not the apical plasma membrane of polarized MDCK cells. Therefore, we propose that Zip5 acts in vivo in serosal-to-mucosal zinc transport.
| MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Northern Blots and Tissue RNA ArraysHuman multiple tissue Northern blots and a multiple tissue expression array were purchased from BD Biosciences and probed with a 488-bp 32P-labeled probe containing SLC39A5 open reading frame nucleotides 103590 according to the manufacturers instructions.
HEK293 Cell Culture and Transfection MethodsHuman embryonic kidney cells (HEK293) were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (Invitrogen) plus 0.45% glucose under 5% CO2. All culture media contained 100 units/ml penicillin, 100 µg/ml streptomycin, 2 mM L-glutamine, and 100 µM non-essential amino acids (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen). Zinc depletion of media using Chelex 100 (Sigma) was performed as previously described with minor modifications (27). Briefly, a solution of 2% (w/v) Chelex 100 resin in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium plus 10% fetal bovine serum was incubated with constant stirring overnight followed by filtration through a 0.2-µm filter. HEK293 (
2 x 106) cells were seeded in 25-mm2 flasks and transfected with the plasmid DNAs using LipofectAMINE 2000 (Invitrogen). Stably transfected HEK293 cell lines were selected with 2.0 µg/ml puromycin (Sigma) 48 h after transfection. Approximately 80% of cells in each population expressed the transgene as shown by immunofluorescence microscopy (data not shown). Cell viability was assayed with the CellTiter 96®AQueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay Kit (Promega). The conversion of the substrate in this kit was accomplished by using dehydrogenase enzymes found in metabolically active cells.
65Zn Uptake AssaysTransiently transfected HEK293 cells were used for 65Zn uptake assays as described previously (22). In brief, 48 h post-transfection, cells were washed once in uptake buffer (15 mM HEPES, 100 mM glucose, and 150 mM KCl, pH 7.0) and then added to prewarmed uptake buffer containing the specified concentration of 65ZnCl2 (PerkinElmer Life Sciences, Inc.) and incubated in a shaking 37 °C water bath for 15 min. Assays were stopped by adding an equal volume of ice-cold uptake buffer supplemented with 1 mM EDTA (stop buffer). Cells were then collected on nitrocellulose filters (Millipore; 0.45-µm pore size) and washed three times in stop buffer (
10 ml of total wash volume). Cell-associated radioactivity was measured with a Packard Auto-Gamma 5650
-counter. In a parallel experiment, cells were washed three times with ice-cold uptake buffer and then lysed in PBS buffer plus 0.1% SDS, 1% Triton X-100. Protein levels were then determined using the Bio-Rad DC protein assay. Zinc accumulation was calculated and normalized to protein concentrations.
ImmunoblottingTransfected cells were harvested, washed three times with ice-cold PBS, scraped into PBS, and collected by centrifugation. After three additional washes in ice-cold PBS, the cells were lysed by sonication in buffer containing 62 mM Tris-Cl (pH 6.8), 2% SDS, 5 mM dithiothreitol, 1 mM EDTA, and protease inhibitors (Roche Molecular Diagnostics). Loading buffer was added to the protein extracts and then incubated at 37 °C for 30 min. (Higher temperatures were found to cause aggregation of these proteins.) Extract volumes equivalent to 20 µg of protein were separated using 10% SDS-PAGE gels, transferred to nitrocellulose membranes, and probed using a rabbit anti-HA polyclonal antibody (1:1000, Sigma) followed by an anti-rabbit IgG antibody conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP, Pierce). Detection of complexes was performed by enhanced chemiluminescence (Roche Applied Sciences). As a loading control, the membranes were stripped of antibodies by incubating at 60 °C for 30 min in stripping buffer (62.5 mM Tris-HCl, 100 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, and 2% (w/v) SDS), washed in TBST, and reprobed with a 1:40,000 dilution of mouse anti-tubulin (Sigma) primary antibody and 1:10,000 dilution of HRP-conjugated anti-mouse IgG (Pierce) as secondary antibody.
Enzymatic removal of glycosyl groups was performed by using PNGase F (New England Biolabs) treatment of lysates. Cell lysates (20 µg of protein) were denatured in 0.5% SDS and 1%
-mercaptoethanol at 100 °C for 10 min. Nonidet P-40 and sodium phosphate were then added to final concentrations of 1% and 50 mM, respectively. 5 µl of PNGase F (2500 units) was added, and the mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 1 h. Samples were then run on a 7.5% SDS-PAGE gel before immunoblotting.
For immunoblot analysis of mZip-HA surface levels, the cells were cultured in 6-well trays. In some experiments, ZnCl2 or TPEN was added to the medium at the indicated concentrations and times. Cells were washed three times with PBS on ice, fixed in 3.7% paraformaldehyde for 30 min at 4 °C, blocked, and incubated for 1 h at room temperature with 1:500 primary rabbit anti-HA antibody (Sigma), and then washed five times with PBS to remove unbound antibodies. The cells were then lysed by sonication in buffer containing 62 mM Tris-Cl (pH 6.8), 2% SDS, 5 mM dithiothreitol, and protease inhibitors (Roche Molecular Diagnostics). Lysates containing the solubilized anti-HA antibodies that were bound to the surface mZip-HA proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE then transferred to nitrocellulose membranes, and the anti-HA antibodies were then detected using anti-rabbit HRP antibodies (1:10,000). The protein detected in the mZip-HA lanes co-migrated with purified anti-HA antibody (data not shown).
Immunofluorescence MicroscopyTo assay the surface levels of mZip-HA proteins, cells were grown in 24-well plates for 48 h on sterile glass coverslips. In some experiments, ZnCl2 or TPEN was added to the medium at the indicated concentrations and times. The cells were then washed three times with ice-cold PBS, fixed in 3.7% paraformaldehyde for 30 min at 4 °C, and washed three times with PBS. Cells were blocked for 1 h with PBS plus 5% normal goat serum (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, Inc.) and 1% bovine serum albumin (Sigma). Cells were incubated for 1 h at room temperature or overnight at 4 °C with a 1:500 dilution of primary rabbit anti-HA antibody (Sigma). The cells were then washed five times in PBS followed by incubation for 1 h with the anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody conjugated with Alexa 488 (Molecular Probes). The cells were washed again with PBS and then examined with an Olympus 1X70 microscope fitted with a Bio-Rad MRC-600 confocal laser. The intracellular distribution of mZip-HA proteins was examined in a similar manner using cells that were permeabilized with 0.1% Triton X-100 in PBS for 10 min at room temperature. Mouse anti-p230 was used as a marker of the trans-Golgi network (BD Biosciences). Detection of p230 was performed using an anti-mouse IgG antibody conjugated to Alexa 594.
mZip-HA Expression in MDCK CellsMadin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum, 50 µg/ml penicillin, and 50 µg/ml streptomycin. MDCK cells were seeded in 25-mm2 flasks and transfected with the plasmid pcDNA3.1 Puro(+) vector or plasmids expressing mZip-HA proteins. Transfections were performed using LipofectAMINE 2000 (Invitrogen). Stable MDCK cell lines were selected with 5.0 µg/ml puromycin (Sigma) 48 h after transfection. The stable cells were cultured on 24-mm Costar Transwell polycarbonate filters with a 0.4-µm pore size at starting densities of 2 x 105 cells per well for 5 days, and then cells were used to assay mZip-HA protein expression and localization as described above.
For immunoblot analysis of mZip5-HA apical and basolateral cell surface protein levels, MDCK cells were grown on Costar Transwell filters for 5 days, washed three times with cold PBS, and fixed with 3.7% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 30 min at 4 °C. The cells were then blocked for 1 h with PBS plus 5% normal goat serum and 1% bovine serum albumin. Cells were incubated 1 h at room temperature with 1:500 dilution of primary rabbit anti-HA antibody (Sigma) added to the apical or basolateral side of the monolayer. Control experiments indicated that the antibodies could not diffuse across the cell layer during this incubation. Surface-bound antibodies were then assayed by immunoblotting as described above.
| RESULTS |
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30% identical. Like other ZIPs, these proteins each have eight predicted transmembrane domains, and the similarity shared between them is greatest in this region. In addition, both Zip4 and Zip5 proteins have long amino-terminal domains. This domain is
300 amino acids for Zip4 and about 200 amino acids for the Zip5 proteins. The amino terminus of Zip4 has been shown previously to be extracellular (23). Mammalian Zip4 and Zip5 proteins also have a conserved domain with the sequence HEXPHEXGD in predicted transmembrane domain 5. Although the function of this domain is unknown, it is conserved in many ZIP proteins (12).
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Expression of mZip5-HA in Transfected HEK293 CellsTo characterize the Zip5 protein and its function, we used an allele of mouse Zip5 with the hemagglutinin antigen (HA) epitope added to its carboxyl terminus to allow specific detection of the protein by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence microscopy. As shown in Fig. 3A (lane 3), cells transfected with a plasmid expressing mZip5-HA from the CMV promoter accumulated a major protein of
80-kDa molecular mass and a less abundant protein of 70 kDa. No proteins were detected in HEK293 cells transfected with the vector alone (Fig. 3A, lanes 1 and 2). The predicted molecular mass of mZip5-HA is
59 kDa. The discrepancy between the observed and expected size was likely the result of N-glycosylation of the mZip5-HA protein. First, a band of the expected 59-kDa size was observed when cells were treated with the N-glycosylation inhibitor tunicamycin (Fig. 3A, lanes 46). Second, the predicted molecular mass was also observed when lysates were treated with PNGase F to enzymatically remove glycosyl groups (Fig. 3B, lanes 3 and 4). Three potential sites of N-glycosylation (Asn-49, Asn-91, and Asn-158) are found in the amino-terminal domain of mZip5 (Fig. 1). The only other potential site is Asn-390, which is predicted to lie within transmembrane domain 4. Therefore, these results are consistent with the topology shown in Fig. 3C in which the amino terminus of Zip5-HA is located on the extracytosolic face of the membrane. Additional data (see below) indicate that the carboxyl-terminal end of the protein is also extracytosolic.
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6-fold more zinc over a 60-min period than did the endogenous uptake activity assayed in vector-only transfectants (Fig. 4C). Only low levels of zinc accumulation were detected when these assays were conducted with chilled cells indicating that zinc accumulation by both mZip5 and the endogenous system present in HEK293 cells are temperature-dependent and therefore likely to be transporter mediated. As shown in Fig. 4D, uptake by the endogenous system and mZip5 was concentration-dependent and saturable. When assayed over a range of zinc concentrations, the uptake activity of mZip5 showed Michaelis-Menten kinetics with an apparent Km value of 1.7 ± 0.2 µM zinc and a Vmax of 13.2 ± 2 pmol/min/mg of protein. The endogenous system in HEK293 cells had an apparent Km value of 2.1 ± 0.1 µM zinc and a Vmax of 4.1 ± 0.5 pmol/min/mg of protein. Finally, we reasoned that the increased zinc uptake ability observed for mZip5-HA-expressing cells could enhance the ability of these cells to grow under zinc-limiting conditions. mZip5-HA-expressing cells and vector-transfected cells were incubated in increasing concentrations of a zinc chelator, TPEN, for 2 days, and cell viability was then measured. Although both cell types lost viability with increasing concentrations of TPEN, the mZip5-HA cells had significantly increased resistance to the chelator (Fig. 4E). These results are consistent with the ability of mZip5 to transport zinc into the cell where it is then available for zinc-dependent processes. To assess the substrate specificity of Zip5, we examined the effects of various metals on zinc accumulation by cells expressing mZip5-HA. We predicted that high levels of other substrates would compete with zinc and interfere with its uptake via mZip5-HA. HEK293 cells were transiently transfected with either the empty vector or the vector encoding the HA-tagged mZip5 protein. Pools of transfectants were assayed for zinc uptake activity with apparent Km levels of 65Zn (1.5 µM) in the presence of either 10- or 50-fold molar excess of competitor metal. Zinc uptake by the endogenous system was strongly inhibited by excess zinc, copper, and cadmium and to a lesser extent by other metals (Fig. 5A). In contrast, zinc uptake by mZip5-HA was strongly inhibited by zinc and was far less sensitive to other metals (Fig. 5B). These results are consistent with the zinc-specific uptake ability of mZip5. A similar result was obtained with mZip1, mZip2, mZip3, and mZip4 suggesting that these proteins are all zinc-specific transporters (9, 22).
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Clear labeling of the periphery of cells suggested that some of the mZip5-HA proteins were localized to the plasma membrane. To assess surface levels of these proteins in cells grown in basal media, immunofluorescence studies were performed using cells that were fixed but not permeabilized. No fluorescence was detected following surface labeling of vector-only transfectants (Fig. 6C). In contrast, fluorescence staining was clearly observed on the surface of mZip4-HA- and mZip5-HA-expressing cells grown in basal media. The absence of detectable surface antibody binding by vector-only transfectants demonstrated that nonspecific antibody binding was not occurring. Therefore, some fraction of mZip4-HA and mZip5-HA proteins are on the plasma membrane in cells grown in basal medium.
To assess the possible effects of zinc status on mZip5-HA localization, we first examined distribution of these proteins by immunofluorescence microscopy of permeabilized cells. As we have shown previously (23), zinc deficiency established by 1-h incubation in media containing 10 µM TPEN resulted in increased mZip4-HA surface levels (Fig. 7A). Zinc treatment (10 µM) had no effect on mZip4-HA distribution, because the level of zinc in basal medium is sufficient to stimulate mZip4-HA endocytosis (23). In contrast, treatment of mZip5-HA-expressing cells with TPEN or zinc did not noticeably alter the apparent steady-state distribution of the protein even after 24 h of exposure (Fig. 7A, data not shown). Immunoblots of total protein extracts from these cells indicated no changes in protein levels occurred under these treatment conditions (data not shown).
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The inability of mZip5-HA to be down-regulated by zinc treatment suggested that overexpression of this protein in transfected cells may cause sensitivity to high zinc. Consistent with this prediction, growth of mZip5-HA cells was more inhibited by high zinc levels than were vector transfectants (Fig. 8A). Notably, at 200 µM zinc added to basal medium, vector transfectants were >80% viable, whereas mZip5-HA cells were <20% viable. In contrast, mZip4-HA-expressing cells were no more sensitive to high zinc than were vector transfectants, consistent with the ability of these cells to down regulate mZip4-HA activity post-translationally. Immunoblotting confirmed that surface levels of mZip5-HA were not altered in high zinc, whereas mZip4-HA levels were reduced (Fig. 8B).
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| DISCUSSION |
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The mammalian Zip4 and Zip5 proteins are very similar in sequence. Moreover, Zip4 and Zip5 are expressed in many of the same tissues, including the proximal and distal intestine. We showed previously that Zip4 is a zinc-specific transporter (22) and, in this report, we show that Zip5 is also specific for zinc. These similarities raised the question as to what different roles these two proteins may be playing in the tissues in which both are expressed. Drawing from the work of Gitschier and co-workers (20), our initial hypothesis was that Zip4 and Zip5 had overlapping functions, i.e. both were involved in the uptake of dietary zinc across the apical membrane of intestinal enterocytes. In this model, Zip4 and Zip5 would be analogous to yeast Zrt1 and Zrt2. The existence of a second transporter for dietary zinc uptake in addition to Zip4 was suggested by the analysis of mutations in patients with acrodermatitis enteropathica. Some AE-associated SLC39A4 mutations are deletions that cause frameshifting and premature translation termination and are therefore likely to cause total loss of Zip4 function (21). In addition, some AE-associated missense mutations also cause the complete loss of Zip4 function (25). Because AE can be successfully treated with dietary zinc supplements, these studies indicated that at least one other zinc transporter is present in the apical membranes of intestinal enterocytes. Gitschier and co-workers proposed that Zip5 played this role (20).
In disagreement with this model, however, we found that mZip4 and mZip5 proteins localize to different regions of the plasma membrane in polarized MDCK cells. Whereas mZip4 primarily localized to the apical plasma membrane, the mouse Zip5 protein was found only on the basolateral surface of these cells. The apical localization of mZip4 was predicted by its presence in the apical membrane of intestinal enterocytes under zinc-limiting conditions in vivo (22). Our cell culture results showing basolateral localization of mZip5 have been recently confirmed in situ; staining of mouse intestinal villi with an anti-mZip5 antibody also showed that mZip5 is found on the basolateral surface of intestinal enterocytes in vivo.2 These studies were performed using mice fed a standard diet. Thus, although we have not examined transcriptional control of Slc39A5 expression in this study, these data indicate expression of this gene in zinc-replete animals.
If mZip5 is not involved in the uptake of dietary zinc, what then is the function of this protein on the basolateral membrane of enterocytes? First, mZip5 may supply serum zinc to these cells for their own use when the dietary intake of zinc is low. For example, in animals fed a zinc-deficient diet, zinc mobilized from internal stores such as the liver may be taken up by the enterocytes via mZip5. Alternatively, excretion of endogenous zinc is one mechanism by which the body rids itself of excess zinc. mZip5 may play a role in zinc homeostasis by transporting excess zinc into the enterocyte for subsequent efflux into the gut lumen. Third, serosal-to-mucosal transport of zinc by mZip5 may be involved in enterocyte sensing of body zinc status. Several studies have indicated that intestinal absorption of zinc is regulated in response to dietary zinc availability (1, 3, 34). In addition, intestinal absorption is also responsive to body zinc stores. For example, Richards and Cousins (35) showed that intraperitoneal injection of zinc markedly decreased absorption when administered 18 h before an oral dose of 65Zn. Thus, zinc absorption is clearly responsive to body zinc status. Dufner-Beattie et al. (22) have recently shown that intraperitoneal injection of zinc markedly decreases mZip4 protein and mRNA levels over similar time periods. Thus, we propose that Zip5 may play an important role in communicating body zinc status to the enterocyte to control mZip4 activity and potentially other aspects of zinc homeostasis. The failure of mZip5 to be down-regulated by zinc treatment through post-translational mechanisms is consistent with these proposed roles in zinc sensing and excretion.
Zinc homeostasis in mammals is regulated through the control of zinc absorption in the intestine and the loss of exogenous zinc in the intestine as well as through both pancreatic and liver excretion. Under conditions of extreme zinc deficiency or excess, the kidney also plays an important homeostatic role. Intriguingly, we note that mZip5 is expressed specifically in all of the tissues that are critical to mammalian zinc homeostasis, i.e. intestine, liver, pancreas, and kidney. Zip5 may play similar roles in the liver, pancreas, and kidney as proposed above for the intestine. For example, the high level of Zip5 expression in the pancreas and liver may provide serum zinc to these tissues for later excretion into the gut. Thus, we predict that Zip5 is a central player in mammalian zinc metabolism.
Note Added in ProofWhile this paper was in press, a related study of mZip5 was accepted for publication (Dufner-Beattie, J., Kuo, Y. M., Gitschier, J., and Andrews, G. K. (September 9, 2004) J. Biol. Chem. 10.1074/jbc.M409962200). Consistent with our results, these authors demonstrated basolateral localization of mZip5 protein in mouse enterocytes, acinar cells, and visceral endoderm cells. Moreover, they showed that neither Slc39A5 mRNA nor mZip5 protein levels were altered in mice in response to changes in dietary zinc. Also consistent with our results, mZip5 protein was abundant on the cell surface under zinc-replete conditions. Remarkably, however, Dufner-Beattie et al. found that plasma membrane levels of mZip5 protein decreased under zinc deficiency in vivo. These data are consistent with a role for mZip5 in zinc excretion.
| FOOTNOTES |
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To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Nutritional Sciences, 340B Nutritional Sciences, 1415 Linden Dr., University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. Tel.: 608-263-1613; Fax: 608-262-5860; E-mail: eide{at}nutrisci.wisc.edu.
1 The abbreviations used are: AE, acrodermatitis enteropathica; MDCK, Madin-Darby canine kidney cells; HA, hemagglutinin; CMV, cytomegalovirus; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; HRP, horseradish peroxodase; TPEN, N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine; PNGase F, peptide N-glycosidase F. ![]()
2 Y. Kuo and J. Gitschier, personal communication. ![]()
| ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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| REFERENCES |
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