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J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 280, Issue 9, 8606-8616, March 4, 2005
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From the
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, ¶Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, **Department of Host Defense, Research Institutes for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan, and NIDA, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
Received for publication, December 2, 2004 , and in revised form, December 17, 2004.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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B-signaling pathways. The signaling molecules of these pathways differentially contribute to the production of various cytokines and nitric oxide (Zhu, J., Krishnegowda, G., and Gowda, D. C. (2004) J. Biol. Chem. 280, 8617-8627). Our data also show that GPIs are degraded by the macrophage surface phospholipases predominantly into inactive species, indicating that the host can regulate GPI activity at least in part by this mechanism. These results imply that macrophage surface phospholipases play important roles in the GPI-induced innate immune responses and malaria pathogenesis. |
INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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3 million deaths annually and ranks first among the various infectious diseases, causing global morbidity and mortality. More than 100 Plasmodium species exist in nature that can infect various vertebrate animals (1). However, only four species are infectious to man, and of these, Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for >95% of deaths (1-4). Plasmodium infection causes a wide range of clinical manifestations, including cerebral malaria, acute respiratory distress, pulmonary edema, renal failure, and severe anemia (1, 2). The acquisition of effective protective immunity to malaria requires repetitive infections over a period of a few years (5, 6). Therefore, during the initial periods of infection, innate immunity plays a crucial role in controlling parasite growth (7-9). Otherwise, the parasite is expected to grow exponentially, leading to the rapid destruction of all the circulatory erythrocytes and death.
Proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-
,1 interferon-
, IL-12, IL-1, and IL-6, and nitric oxide produced during malaria infection are critical for controlling parasite growth (2, 8-15). However, excessive production of proinflammatory cytokines could lead to severe pathological conditions (16-19). Therefore, understanding the mechanism of innate immune responses to P. falciparum factors could offer therapeutic targets for malaria. Although the various P. falciparum components that are potentially involved in the production of inflammatory responses by the innate immune system remain to be elucidated, the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor glycolipids of the parasite have been proposed as the prominent parasite components responsible for malaria pathogenesis (20, 21). Accumulated evidence indicates that GPIs of parasitic protozoa contribute prominently to the pathology of parasitic diseases (22). The deleterious effects of the parasite GPIs have been attributed to their ability to induce TNF- and other proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide, which contribute to disease pathology (20-22). It has been shown that the level of TNF- is markedly elevated in patients with fatal cerebral malaria, and anti-TNF- antibodies prevent the development of cerebral malaria (23).
GPIs consist of a conserved glycan structure, ethanolamine-phosphate-6Man1-2Man1-6Man1-4GlcN, (1-6)-linked to the PI (24-27). GPIs are ubiquitous in eukaryotes, where they are primarily involved in anchoring certain cell surface proteins to plasma membranes. Compared with animal cells, GPIs are abundantly expressed in parasites, such as Trypanosoma, Leishmania, and Plasmodium. Therefore, in these parasites a relatively large pool of GPIs is no longer anchored to proteins and appears to be the direct target of the host innate immune system for inducing proinflammatory responses (22). GPIs from different species differ in the type of acyl/alkyl substituents, the presence of additional sugar moieties on the third and/or first mannose, extra ethanolamine phosphate groups on the carbohydrate moiety, and acyl substituent on C2 of inositol, leading to a broad structural diversity and variation in potency of their biological activity (28, 29).
GPIs of P. falciparum have been shown to activate protein-tyrosine kinase and protein kinase C, which together regulate the activation of NF-B/c-Rel transcription factor with the downstream expression of proinflammatory responses (30-32). However, the receptors that mediate P. falciparum GPI signaling and how the exogenously induced signal is transmitted into the cells has remained unclear. Research during the past few years has shown that the innate immune responses to various microbial pathogens are mediated by a family of signal-transducing proteins called TLRs (33-35). To date, 13 TLRs, TLR1 through TLR13, have been identified in mammalian cells, most recognizing specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (36). For example, TLR4 recognizes enterobacterial LPS, TLR3 recognizes double-stranded RNA, TLR5 recognizes flagellin, and TLR9 recognizes CpG-containing motifs of bacterial DNA. TLR2, however, exhibits broad ligand recognition, and the identified ligands include peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid, lipoproteins, lipoarabinomannan, zymosan, certain glycolipids, non-enterobacterial LPS, and porins (33-35). Efficient signal transduction by TLR2 appears to require its heterodimerization with either TLR1 (for triacylated lipoproteins) or TLR6 (for diacylated lipoproteins) (33, 37, 38). The transmission of responses by TLRs involves in most cases the recruitment of a shared adaptor protein, MyD88, which interacts with TLRs through Toll-IL-1 receptor (TIR) domains, initiating signaling cascades, engaging various MAPKs and NF-B (39).
Thus far there have been no direct studies demonstrating TLR-mediated immune responses to P. falciparum ligands, although MyD88-deficient mice have been reported to be protected from Plasmodium berghei-induced IL-12-mediated liver injury, suggesting involvement of TLR-mediated immune responses to malarial factors (40). Recently, GPI moieties of the mucin-type glycoproteins of Trypanosoma cruzi trypamastigotes have been shown to induce proinflammatory responses through TLR2-mediated signaling (41-43). However, P. falciparum GPIs are structurally distinct from those of T. cruzi; the former contain a diacylated glycerol moiety and fatty acid acylation at C-2 of inositol, whereas the latter have sn-1-alkyl-sn-2-acylglycerol and lack inositol acylation (29, 44, 45). Furthermore, the requirement of TLR1 or TLR6 for heterodimerization with TLR2 for signaling by GPIs is not known. In this study we show that proinflammatory responses to P. falciparum GPIs by macrophages are mediated mainly through TLR2 and to a lesser but significant extent also through TLR4. We also show for the first time that the parasite GPIs are degraded by macrophage surface phospholipase A2 and phospholipase D and that intact and sn-2-lyso-GPIs are differentially recognized by TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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-mannosidase (20 units/mg), LPS (from Salmonella minnesota Re595 strain, catalog number L 9764) were from Sigma. MALP-2 and Pam3CSK4 (standard TLR2 ligands) were from EMC Microcollections (Tübingen, Germany). IL-1
was from Pierce. Human blood and serum from healthy donors were from the hospital of the Hershey Medical Center. Limulus amebocyte lysate assay kit (catalog number GS003 with sensitivity of 0.03 enzyme units/ml) was from Associates of Cape Cod (Falmouth, MA). Mycoplasma detection kit (version 2.0) was from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). Colloidal gold (40-60-nm particle size) was from ImmunoReagent products (Lakeside, AZ). Chemiluminescence substrate kit was from KPL (Gaithersburg, MD). Dual luciferase reporter assay kit and passive lysis buffer were from Promega (Madison, WI). The Golgi Stop (monensin), 2.4 G2-purified antibody against Fc receptor, Cytofix/Cytoperm, and PE-conjugated rat anti-mouse CD11b (clone M1/70) were from Pharmingen, and fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated rat anti-mouse TNF- (clone MP6-XT22) was from Caltag (Burlingame, CA). Anti-human TLR2 and anti-human TLR4 mouse monoclonal antibodies (both IgG2), clones TL2.1 and HTA125, respectively, were from eBioscience, Inc. (San Diego, CA). A mouse monoclonal antibody (IgG2) specific to an ovarian glycoprotein tumor antigen (OVB-3, Ref. 46) was a gift from Dr. Ira Pastan, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD. Phosphospecific anti-mouse ERK1/ERK2, p38, and JNK mouse monoclonal antibodies, anti-mouse -tubulin peptide mouse monoclonal antibody, rabbit polyclonal antibodies against mouse IB, ERK1/ERK2, p38, and JNK peptides, and horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG and goat anti-rabbit IgG were from Cell Signaling Technology, Inc. (Beverly, MA). Mouse monoclonal antibody-specific HA (HA.11 from clone 16B12) was from Covance, Richmond, CA. Nitrocellulose membranes were from Bio-Rad. Endotoxin-free reagents, water, and buffers were used for all the experimental procedures. Cell Lines—Raw264.7 and J774A.1 mouse macrophage cell lines, and L929 murine fibroblast cells were from ATCC. HEK-293 human embryonic kidney epithelial cells were originally from Dr. David Schowalter, when he was at the University of Washington. HEK-293, Raw264.7, and J774A.1 cells were cultured in DMEM, 10% FBS, 1% penicillin/streptomycin. L929 cells were cultured in DMEM, 5% FBS, 1% glutamine, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin in roller flasks at 37 °C. For the preparation of conditioned medium from L929 cells, the cells were cultured in the above medium for 5 days, and the supernatant was collected and centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 20 min. The clear solution was used as a source of macrophage colony stimulatory factor.
Mice—The TLR2-/-, TLR4-/-, and MyD88-/- mice were produced at the Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Japan. The knock-out mice were backcrossed six to eight generations to C57BL/6J mice. The C57BL/6J wild type mice were from The Jackson Laboratories. TLR2 and TLR4 double knock-out (TLR2/4-/-) mice were produced by crossing TLR2-/- and TLR4-/- mice. All animals were maintained in a pathogen-free environment.
Parasites—Intraerythrocytic P. falciparum (FCR-3 strain) was cultured in RPMI 1640 medium using O-type blood and 10% O-positive human serum, 50 µg/ml gentamycin at 3-4% hematocrit (45, 47). Parasite cultures were regularly synchronized with 5% sorbitol (48) and tested for mycoplasma by PCR using an ATCC kit (49).
Isolation of GPIs from P. falciparum—Isolation of parasites and purification of GPIs were performed as described previously (45). Briefly, mycoplasma-free parasite cultures with 20-30% parasitemia were harvested at the schizont stage, treated with 0.025% saponin in Trager buffer (10 mM K2HPO4, 1 mM NaH2PO4, 11 mM NaHCO3, 56 mM NaCl, 59 mM KCl, 14 mM glucose, pH 7.4; Ref. 45), and passed through a 26-gauge needle to lyse the erythrocytes. The suspension was centrifuged and washed several times, and the erythrocyte debris was removed by centrifugation on a 5% bovine serum albumin cushion. The parasites were washed 3 times with phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.4, lyophilized, and stored at -80 °C. The parasites (from 10 ml wet pellet) were extracted 3 times with chloroform, methanol (2:1, v/v) to remove non-glycosylated lipids. GPIs were extracted with chloroform, methanol, water (10:10:3, v/v/v), dried, and partitioned between water and water-saturated 1-butanol. The organic layer was washed four times with water and dried. The residue was extracted with 80% aqueous 1-propanol and dried and the GPIs were further purified by HPLC using C4 Supelcosil LC-304 column (4.6 x 250 cm, Supelco) as described previously (45). In some experiments GPIs were further purified by HPTLC using chloroform, methanol, water (10:10:2.4, v/v/v). The HPLC and HPTLC-purified GPIs were found to be free from endotoxin as tested by the Limulus amebocyte lysate assay (50). By this assay (with positive detection limit of 0.01 ng/ml for LPS standard), 5 µg/ml GPIs showed negative endotoxin activity. The purity of the GPIs was confirmed by mass spectrometry and carbohydrate compositional analysis. The GPIs were quantified by determining the amount of GlcN and Man after acid hydrolysis and HPLC as described previously (45).
Preparation of Man3-GPIs—The Man4-GPIs (10 µg) were treated with jack bean -mannosidase (40 units/ml) in 100 µl of 100 mM sodium acetate, 2 mM Zn2+, pH 5.0, containing 0.1% sodium taurodeoxycholate at 37 °C for 24 h (51). The solutions were heated in a boiling water bath for 5 min, cooled, and extracted with water-saturated 1-butanol, washed 4 times with water, and dried. The Man3-GPIs were purified by HPLC as above, and the purity of the samples was ascertained by mass spectrometry and by the carbohydrate compositional analysis.
Preparation of sn-2-lyso-GPIs—The GPIs (10 µg) were treated with bee venom phospholipase A2 (1700 unit/ml) in 100 µl of 100 mM Tris-HCl, 10 mM CaCl2, pH 7.5, at 37 °C for 24 h (44). The solution was heated in a boiling water bath for 5 min, cooled, and extracted with water-saturated 1-butanol, washed 4 times with water, and dried. The sn-2-lyso-GPIs were purified by HPLC as above, and the purity was determined by mass spectrometry and by carbohydrate compositional analysis (45).
Mass Spectrometry—The solutions of GPIs in chloroform, methanol, and water (8:4:3, v/v/v) were mixed with equal volumes of a saturated solution of 6-aza-2-thiothymine in 50% ethanol, deposited on the sample plate, and air-dried. Mass spectra (an average of 50 shots) were acquired in linear negative ion mode on a DE-PRO matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PE-Biosystems, Framingham, MA) equipped with a nitrogen laser (337 nm) at 20-kV accelerating voltage.
Carbohydrate Compositional Analysis—The GPIs (1 µg each) were hydrolyzed with 400 µl of either 2.5 M trifluoroacetic acid at 100 °C for 5 h or 3 M HCl at 100 °C for 4 h. The hydolysates were dried in a Speed-Vac, dissolved in water, and analyzed on a CarboPac PA10 high pH anion-exchange column (2 x 250 mm) using a Dionex BioLC GS50 HPLC system coupled to a ID50 electrochemical detector (52). The elution was performed with 16 mM sodium hydroxide, and the response factors for the monosaccharides were determined using standard sugar solutions.
Coating of GPIs to Gold Particles—The colloidal gold suspension (1.5 ml) was centrifuged in an Eppendorf centrifuge at 8000 rpm and washed 3 times with endotoxin-free water. The particle pellet thus obtained (8 µl) was suspended in 120 µl of water and mixed with GPIs (5 µg) in 30 µl of 80% 1-propanol and dried in a Speed-Vac. By adding a known amount of [3H]GlcN-labeled GPIs during coating, we found that the GPIs are quantitatively adsorbed by the gold particles. The GPI-coated gold particles were suspended in 13 ml of DMEM, 10% FBS and used for stimulation of macrophages in 24- or 96-well microtiter plates.
Preparation of Mouse Bone Marrow Macrophages and Human Peripheral Blood Monocytes and Stimulation with GPIs—Mouse macrophages were obtained by the differentiation of primary bone marrow cells with 30% of L929 cell-conditioned medium as described (53). The macrophages were plated into 96-well plates (2.5 x 104 cells/well), and after 24 h, the culture supernatants were removed and incubated with the indicated amounts of GPIs in DMEM medium containing 10% FBS and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. For human monocytes, the whole blood was diluted with 3 volumes of RPMI 1640 medium, and 4 volumes of cell suspension was layered on 1 volume of isolymph and centrifuged at 1300 rpm at room temperature for 30 min. The buffy layer at the interface was recovered, washed 2 times with RPMI 1640 medium, and then suspended in RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% FBS (Invitrogen) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (2.5 x 106 cells/ml). The cell suspension (200 µl) was separated into aliquots in 96-well microtiter plates and incubated overnight at 37 °C under a CO2 atmosphere. The unbound cells were washed off, and the bound cells (2 x 104 cells/well) were stimulated with GPIs. After 48 h, the culture supernatants were collected, and TNF- was measured by ELISA. For the analysis of cell signaling molecules, mouse macrophages (5 x 105 cells/well) in 24-well plastic plates were maintained overnight in DMEM containing 0.5% FBS and 1% penicillin/streptomycin and then stimulated with GPIs. In the case of human monocytes, 2.5 x 105 cells in 1640 medium containing 0.5% FBS and 1% penicillin/streptomycin were stimulated with GPIs. In both cases at the indicated time points the culture supernatants were removed, and cells were washed once with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.4, and lysed with radioimmune precipitation assay buffer (52). The cell lysates were used for the analysis of MAPK phosphorylation or IB degradation by Western blotting.
Estimation of TNF- by ELISA—The TNF- in the culture supernatants of macrophages stimulated with GPIs were determined by Sandwich ELISA with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated streptavidin and 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine color reagent using the Duoset ELISA development kit (R&D Systems). After stopping the color development with 1 M sulfuric acid, the absorbance at 450 nm was measured with SpectraMax Plus384 plate reader (Molecular Devices). The cytokine concentrations were calculated with reference to the standard curves.
Stimulation of Bone Marrow Primary Cells, Staining of Intracellular TNF-, and FACS Analysis—Bone marrow cells were flushed from femurs and tibias, and the red blood cells were lysed by suspending cells in ammonium chloride hypotonic buffer (0.15 M NH4Cl, 1 mM NaHCO3, 0.1 mM EDTA, pH 7.4). The bone marrow cells were plated in 96-well microtiter plates (1 x 106 cells/well) in DMEM containing 10% FBS (Hyclone). The cells were stimulated with 200 nM GPIs at 37 °C for 5 h in the presence of 0.15 µl/well of the Golgi Stop (monensin) to accumulate TNF- intracellularly. The cells were spun in the plate and blocked with 1:100 diluted 2.4 G2 antibody against Fc receptors in FACS buffer (1% bovine serum albumin in phosphate-buffered saline plus 0.09% sodium azide), then stained with 1:100 diluted PE-conjugated rat anti-mouse CD11b antibody in FACS buffer. The cells were then fixed and permeabilized with 100 µl/well Cytofix/Cytoperm and stained with 1:100 diluted fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated rat anti-mouse TNF-. After two washes the cells were analyzed on a BD Biosciences FACScan using CellQuest Pro software for data analysis.
HEK-293 Cell Transfection and Stimulation with GPIs—HEK-293 cells were cultured in DMEM medium, 10% FBS (Hyclone), penicillin/streptomycin, and the confluent monolayer was harvested by treatment with trypsin/EDTA. The cells were plated in 96-well microtiter plates (4 x 104 cells/well) 1 day before transfection. The following amounts of DNA per well were transfected by the calcium phosphate precipitation as described (54): 10 ng of E-selectin firefly luciferase, 0.2 ng of -actin Renilla luciferase, 2.5 ng of human TLR2 when alone or 1.25 ng when cotransfected with 1.25 ng of human TLR1 or 12.5 ng of human TLR6 (adjusted for equivalent expression of hemagglutinin-tagged TLR proteins as judged by Western blot analysis using anti-HA antibody), and 2.5 ng of hCD14. Total DNA per well was normalized to 50 ng by adding empty vector. Three hours after transfection cells were washed, incubated with DMEM, 10% FBS, and 20-24 h later stimulated with 200 nM GPIs or the indicated amounts of control ligands in DMEM containing 10% FBS. After a 5-h incubation, the cells were washed once in phosphate-buffered saline and lysed in passive lysis buffer (Promega). The luciferase activity was measured using the Dual Luciferase Reporter Assay System (Promega) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The relative light units were quantitated using the formula (light output by the E-selectin firefly luciferase)/(light output by the -actin-Renilla luciferase control).
Western Blot Analysis of Signaling Molecules—The cell lysates obtained after stimulation of mouse macrophages and human monocytes with GPIs as above were electrophoresed on 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gels in the presence of 2-mercaptoethanol. The protein bands on gels were transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes, blocked with 5% fat-free dry milk, and incubated with 1:500- or 1:1000-diluted anti-peptide rabbit polyclonal or phospho-specific monoclonal antibodies to detect various MAPKs and their phosphorylated forms, respectively. The membranes were also probed with 1:500-diluted anti-IB peptide rabbit polyclonal antibody or 1:1000 anti--tubulin mouse monoclonal antibodies. After washing with Tris-buffered saline, the membranes were incubated with 1:2000-diluted horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG or goat anti-rabbit IgG. The bound secondary antibodies were detected with chemiluminescence substrate.
GPI Degradation by Macrophages—The parasite GPIs (0.1 µg plus 200,000 cpm of [3H]GlcN-labeled GPIs obtained by metabolic labeling) in ethanol, water, 1-propanol (78:20:2, v/v/v) were added to murine macrophages (1 x 106 cells) or human monocytes (1 x 105 cells) in glass Petri dishes in serum-free medium (Invitrogen) that supports the growth of mammalian cells and incubated under conditions at 37 °C for 48 h. The culture supernatants were collected and extracted with 1-butanol. The organic layer was washed four times with water. The aqueous layer was chromatographed on a Bio-Gel P-4 column (1 x 90 cm) in 0.1 M pyridine, 0.1 M acetic acid, pH 5.0. The radioactivity-containing fractions were pooled and lyophilized. Samples recovered in each case from the organic and aqueous layers were analyzed by TLC using chloroform, methanol, water (10:10:2.4, v/v/v).
To determine whether GPIs were degraded by phospholipases on the cell surface or by those released into medium, 200 ng/ml of unlabeled GPIs were incubated with macrophages (2 x 106 cells) in 1 ml of serum-free medium at 37 °C for 48 h. The supernatant was collected, centrifuged to remove cell debris, and incubated with 400,000 cpm of [3H]GlcN-labeled GPIs (prepared as described previously; Refs. 45 and 47) at 37 °C for 48 h. The solution was extracted with 1-butanol, and the organic and water layers were analyzed as above.
Preparation of Glycan and the Lipid Moieties of GPIs—The GPI portion lacking the lipid moiety was isolated after incubation of the parasite Man4-GPIs (5 µg plus 400,000 cpm of [3H]GlcN-labeled GPIs in 25 µl of 78% ethanol, 20% water, 2% 1-propanol) with murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (1 x 107 cells) in 5 ml of serum-free medium (see above) at 37 °C for 48 h. The culture supernatant was extracted with 1-butanol, and the samples that remained in the aqueous phase were dried, chromatographed on Bio-Gel P-4 (1 x 90 cm), and further purified by ion-exchange chromatography using AG50w-X12 (H+) resin. The PI portion was isolated by treatment of GPIs with HNO2 followed by extraction with 1-butanol as described previously (45).
Statistical Analysis—The data from TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6 gain of function assay (see Fig. 5) are presented as the mean ± S.D. (n = 3). Raw data between two groups were compared by Student's t test for paired samples. Data from more than two groups were compared by analysis of variance using the Prism 3 program form GraphPad Software, Inc. (San Diego, CA). Probabilities (p value) of 0.05 or less were considered statistically significant.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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TNF- Production by Macrophages Stimulated with P. falciparum GPIs and GPI Structure-Activity Relationship—P. falciparum GPIs are generally readily soluble in aqueous 80% 1-proponal or water-saturated 1-butanol but not so easily in 80% ethanol or Me2SO. Because 1-propanol and 1-butanol are toxic to cells, they are not suitable solvents for the preparation of GPI stock solutions for activity studies. We found that the P. falciparum GPIs are easily soluble in a mixture of ethanol, water, 1-propanol (78:20:2, v/v/v); up to 2 µl of this solvent in 200 µl of culture medium is not toxic to macrophages. However, our initial studies showed that, when macrophages were stimulated with GPI stock solutions prepared in the above solvent, there were considerable variations in the level of TNF- produced in replicate assays. This was mainly due to the quick evaporation of solvent while dissolving a few microgram quantities of GPIs in a few microliters volume. Evaporation of the stock solution during handling confounded the problem, resulting in inconsistent transfer of aliquots to macrophage culture. We circumvented this problem by coating the GPIs onto colloidal gold particles and stimulating the cells with the coated particles. To determine the validity of this procedure, we initially studied TNF- production in macrophages stimulated with aliquots of a stock GPI solution in the above organic solvent (prepared using a large batch of GPIs to minimize solvent evaporation) and compared the results with those obtained by treating macrophages with similar amounts of GPIs coated on gold particles. In three different cells types, namely, human peripheral blood monocytes, bone marrow-derived mouse macrophages, and cultured mouse macrophage cell lines (data not shown), the levels of TNF- produced by stimulation with GPIs dissolved in the above organic solvent were comparable to those produced by treatment GPI-coated gold particles (Fig. 1). The gold particles alone were unable to activate cells, and the viability of cells was not affected with the amounts of gold particles used in the experiments. We found that GPIs coated onto gold particles offer several advantages over the procedure using GPIs solution in organic solvents; (i) results from replicate and different experimental sets are consistently reproducible, (ii) cell toxicity due to organic solvents is avoided, and (iii) as shown in Fig. 1, the GPIs with fewer sugar residues, such as Man3-GPIs containing three fatty acid substituents that are insoluble or have very low solubility in 80% ethanol or Me2SO, can be easily handled to obtain reproducible results.
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-mannosidase (55). However, in the present study, when assessed by coating onto gold particles, Man3-GPIs, in three different macrophages types used, showed approximately 80% of the TNF--producing activity of Man4-GPIs (Fig. 1). Furthermore, we found that the Man3-GPIs, compared with Man4-GPIs, is sparingly soluble in 80% aqueous ethanol, the solvent that was used for the preparation of GPI stock solution in the previous study, presumably because of fewer sugar residues in Man3-GPIs (55). We also found that Man3-GPIs are soluble in ethanol, water, 1-propanol (78:20:2), and the results obtained by using Man3-GPIs in this solvent were nearly comparable with those obtained by stimulation of macrophages with Man3-GPI-coated gold particles (Fig. 1). Therefore, the previously reported inactivity of Man3-GPIs was most likely due to the failure of transferring Man3-GPIs from the stock vial to the culture medium because of their low solubility in 80% ethanol. In the case of sn-2-lyso-GPIs, as reported previously (54), the TNF--producing activity is comparable with that of the intact Man4-GPIs (Fig. 1).
TLR2 Is the Major Receptor for Macrophage Signaling by P. falciparum GPIs—Previous studies have shown that the GPIs purified from P. falciparum can activate macrophages and endothelial cells to produce proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide (20, 30-32). Previous studies have also shown that stimulation of cells with the parasite GPIs results in the activation of protein-tyrosine kinase and protein kinase C, which together activate NF-B and the downstream expression of cytokines and nitric oxide (20, 30-32). However, the receptor involved in the recognition of P. falciparum GPIs and the signaling pathways that were activated have not been studied. Recent studies have shown that cell signaling by bacterial LPS and T. cruzi GPIs is mediated by TLR4 and TLR2, respectively (33-35, 41-43). To determine whether cell signaling by P. falciparum GPIs is also mediated through recognition by TLRs and to study the GPI structure-activity relationship with respect to recognition by TLRs, we stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages from wild type, TLR2-/- or TLR4-/-, and MyD88-/- mice with the parasite Man4-GPIs and its derivatives, namely, Man3-GPIs and sn-2-lyso-GPIs. In each case, cell activation was assessed by measuring TNF- secreted into the culture medium. With Man4-GPIs and Man3-GPIs, in each case the level of TNF- produced by macrophages from TLR4-/- cells was 72% that produced by the corresponding GPI type in macrophages from wild type animals (Fig. 2, A and B). Macrophages from TLR2-/- mice produced 20% of TNF- compared with that by macrophages from wild type mice. The macrophages from MyD88-/- mice, however, produced only 8% of TNF- compared with that produced by the cells from wild type animals. These results taken together indicate that P. falciparum GPIs are recognized by both TLR2 and TLR4 and these receptors together account for 92% of the GPI-induced activity by macrophages and that recognition of GPIs by TLR2 is far more efficient than that by TLR4. The results also indicate that parasite GPIs can induce a low level (8%) of activity either through the TLR4-dependent, MyD88-independent pathway or through recognition by receptors other than TLR2 and TLR4. In the case of sn-2-lyso-GPIs, however, the level of TNF- produced by TLR4-/-, TLR2-/-, and MyD88-/- macrophages was 80, 12, and 8%, respectively, compared with that by wild type macrophages (Fig. 2C). These results reveal that the sn-2-lyso-GPIs, containing two fatty acid substituents, also exhibit a low level of TLR4-dependent cell signaling activity.
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production by macrophages from TLR4-/- and TLR2-/- macrophages was, respectively, about 72 and 20% that produced by macrophages from wild type mice (not shown). Thus, our study establishes that P. falciparum GPIs, which contain three fatty acid substituents, are recognized by both TLR2 and TLR4, although the contribution of the latter is markedly lower compared with that of the former. Furthermore, the results of Man4-GPIs and sn-2-lyso-GPIs, with the former exhibiting greater TLR4-mediated activity than the latter, suggest that the fatty acid content is an important factor in recognition of GPIs by TLR2 and TLR4.
To avoid potential confounding effects of in vitro growth in macrophages obtained from the differentiation of bone marrow cells with L929 cell conditioned medium, we stimulated primary mouse bone marrow cells directly with P. falciparum GPIs. Activation was assessed by FACS analysis after trapping TNF- intracellularly. Gold particles alone did not induce TNF- production in the primary cells; 0.1% TNF--positive cells were background (Fig. 3). In contrast, when stimulated with the Man4-GPIs, about 4, 3.6 and 0.3% of cells from the wild type B6, TLR4-/-, and TLR2-/- mice produced TNF-. Cells from either TLR2/4-/- or MyD88-/- mice showed only background levels of 0.1% positive cells in this assay (Fig. 3). The lack of responding cells from TLR2/4-/- or MyD88-/- mice in this experiment, despite the detection of low levels of TNF- in culture supernatant (see Fig. 2), is likely due to the lower sensitivity of the FACS assay, with only a small population of bone marrow cells responding to activation by GPIs. The cells demonstrated predicted responses to control ligands with 6.4% of cells from TLR2-/- mice responding to LPS and no response (background level of 0.1%) with Pam3CSK4, a synthetic lipopeptide with exclusive TLR2 activity. Similarly, as predicted, 5% of TLR4-/- cells were responsive to Pam3CSK4 and no response (background level of 0.1% cells) to LPS. These results confirm that P. falciparum GPI-induced cell signaling is mediated mainly through TLR2 in primary mouse bone marrow cells.
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production in human peripheral monocytes treated with anti-human TLR2- or TLR4-specific mouse monoclonal antibodies before stimulation with the parasite GPIs. Pretreatment with anti-TLR2 monoclonal antibody resulted in an antibody dose-dependent inhibition of GPI-induced TNF- production by human monocytes; the level of inhibition was as much as 74-86% in cells treated with 5-40 µg/ml anti-TLR2 antibody compared with cells treated with a non-relevant mouse monoclonal antibody (Fig. 4). On the other hand, pretreatment of monocytes with 5-40 µg/ml anti-TLR4 antibody caused 33-49% inhibition of TNF- production (Fig. 4). With both antibodies the inhibition was statistically highly significant (p = <0.001). A non-relevant mouse monoclonal antibody (an IgG2 produced against an ovarian tumor glycoprotein antigen, Ref. 46) showed <5-8% inhibition of TNF- production and was not statistically significant at any concentration tested (p > 0.05). These results demonstrate that the GPI-induced cell signaling in human monocytes is mediated, as in the case of mouse macrophages, mainly through TLR2 and to some extent through TLR4.
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B-dependent E-selectin promoter luciferase reporter assay (54). The cells were transiently transfected with human TLR2 alone, TLR2 plus TLR1, or TLR2 plus TLR6. Upon stimulation with intact Man4-GPIs, cells transfected with TLR2 alone could induce the E-selectin reporter response 6-fold higher compared with the respective cells stimulated with gold particles alone (Fig. 5). In contrast, co-transfection of TLR2 with either TLR1 or TLR6 resulted in 56- and 11-fold induction, respectively (Fig. 5). Upon stimulation with Man4-GPIs, cells transfected with TLR2 plus TLR1 were consistently significantly more efficient in inducing the reporter response than cells transfected with TLR2 plus TLR6. The IL-1 receptor is constitutively expressed in HEK-293 cells, and as expected, IL-1 mediated equivalent activation of the reporter construct in all transfectants (data not shown). To determine whether TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6 heterodimers discriminate between GPIs with different structural features, the transfectants were stimulated with Man3-GPIs and sn-2-lyso-GPIs. Similar to intact Man4-GPIs, Man3-GPIs induced a significantly higher response with TLR2/TLR1 compared with TLR2/TLR6 (Fig. 5). Strikingly, the sn-2-lyso-GPIs were significantly better recognized by TLR2/TLR6 relative to TLR2/TLR1 (Fig. 5). These results suggest that TLR1 and TLR6 can discriminate GPIs with three or two fatty acid substituents. This GPI structural discrimination by TLR1 and TLR6 resembles the specific recognition of triacylated peptides and diacylated peptides by TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6, respectively, in macrophages from TLR6 and TLR1 knock-out mice (37, 38). Interestingly, in our transfection studies using human TLR genes, the discrimination between Man4-GPIs and Man4-sn-2-lyso-GPIs is far more efficient than that between Pam3CSK4 and MALP-2, the standard ligands for TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6.
Analysis of the Downstream Signaling Pathway Activation in Macrophages Stimulated with P. falciparum GPIs—The TLR/MyD88-mediated cell signaling triggers the activation of various MAPKs and NF-B, leading to the production of proinflammatory mediators (39). To determine the signaling pathways that are specifically activated by P. falciparum GPIs, we analyzed the phosphorylation of the downstream MAPKs and the degradation of IB (indicative of NF-B activation) in macrophages from wild type and various knock-out mice by Western blotting. In macrophages from wild type and TLR4-/- mice, stimulation with parasite GPIs resulted in the efficient activation of ERK1/2, p38, JNK, and IB degradation (Fig. 6, A and B). Cells from TLR2-/- mice also showed activation of these signaling molecules, but the efficiency of activation was significantly lower compared with either the wild type or TLR4-/- mice (Fig. 6C). Macrophages from MyD88-/- mice showed a consistent very low level of activation of ERK1/ERK2, p38, and JNK but no degradation of IB (Fig. 6D), suggesting that this could be due to either TLR4-mediated, MyD88-independent signaling or the activation by receptors other than TLR2 and TLR4. Together, these results in addition to identifying the downstream signaling pathways involved in the GPI-mediated inflammatory responses, confirm that the signaling is mainly through TLR2 and to a lower but significant extent also through TLR4.
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P. falciparum GPIs Are Degraded by Macrophage Surface Phospholipases—GPIs have been reported to undergo spontaneous insertion into plasma membranes (56, 57), a property that has been implicated in cell activation (32). However, it was previously reported that, upon incubation with mouse macrophages, about 98% of P. falciparum GPIs remained in the medium and only about 2% was associated with cells (55). The fate of GPIs remaining in culture medium after prolonged incubation with macrophages was not previously studied. In this study we analyzed the GPIs recovered from culture medium after incubation with mouse macrophages or human monocytes for 48 h. Because it is known that animal sera contain various phospholipases, including phospholipase A2 and GPI-specific phospholipase D (58-61), the cells were cultured in serum-free medium. TLC analysis of the GPIs recovered from macrophage culture medium showed that in murine macrophages >98% of the GPIs were degraded, and about 80% of the degradation products lacked the diacylglycerol phosphate moiety and were recovered in the aqueous phase upon extraction with 1-butanol (Table I). This product remained at or near the origin on the TLC plates (Fig. 7), and mass spectral analysis gave an (M-H)- ion at m/z 1349.5 (calculated mass for the glycan portion with C16:0 on C-2 of inositol is 1350 kDa). Therefore, the product is derived by the action of GPI-specific phospholipase D on the parasite GPIs. The remainder (20%) of the degradation product had an Rf value similar to that of sn-2-lyso-GPIs, and it was inferred to be the product of phospholipase A2. In the case of human peripheral monocytes, 69% of the GPIs were degraded, and 31% remained intact; however, the cell numbers used were 10 times less than murine macrophages. Of the 69% degraded, the majority lacked the diacylglycerol phosphate moiety (present in water phase when extracted with 1-butanol) and remained at or near the origin on TLC plates, and 10% converted to products with Rf values similar to those of sn-2-lyso-Man4-GPIs (Table I and Fig. 7). Furthermore, when incubated with culture medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum, the parasite GPIs were degraded into products that were similar to those formed when incubated with macrophages in serum-free medium (not shown). However, when GPIs were incubated with supernatants from mouse macrophages or human monocytes, almost all of the GPIs remained intact. Therefore, the observed GPI degradation is mainly due to phospholipases that are present on the cell surface. This prediction is consistent with the reported presence of phospholipase D and phospholipase A2 on the cell surface (62, 63). The GPI glycan portion that lacks the lipid moiety and the PI moiety either alone or together were unable to activate macrophages to induce TNF-, suggesting that GPIs with covalently linked glycan core and lipid moiety are recognized by TLRs. Thus, these results suggest that macrophages can regulate the activity of GPIs at least in part by degrading them into inactive products by the action of the cell surface phospholipase D. In vivo the regulation of GPI activity is likely to be much more effective because of the degradation of the GPIs by serum phospholipases.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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B pathways and downstream expression of cytokines and nitric oxide. However, the GPIs of various organisms differ markedly in their overall structural complexity and exhibit varied potency with regard to their ability to activate macrophages (28, 29). Therefore, one would expect that GPIs from different parasitic organisms are differentially recognized by TLRs, similar to the case of LPS from various Gram-negative bacteria (33). Although LPS from some bacteria are recognized exclusively by TLR4, those from other bacteria display TLR2 activity as well (38). Furthermore, although previous studies have shown that P. falciparum GPI-induced proinflammatory responses involve the activation of protein kinase C and protein-tyrosine kinase in mouse macrophages, leading to NF-B nuclear translocation with downstream cytokine expression (30-32), the receptors that recognize GPIs and cell-signaling pathways involved have not been studied. In this study we conclusively show that cell signaling by P. falciparum GPIs is mediated mainly through the recognition by TLR2 and to a lesser extent by TLR4 as well.
The evidence that supports the above conclusion includes the following. (i) Direct measurement of the level of TNF- produced by macrophages from wild type, TLR2-/-, TLR4-/-, and MyD88-/- macrophages in response to stimulation with highly purified GPIs of P. falciparum. As shown in Fig. 2, upon stimulation with P. falciparum GPIs, TLR4-/- macrophages consistently produced 72% of TNF- compared with that produced by macrophages from the wild type mice. Conversely, the amount of TNF- elicited by TLR2-/- macrophages was about 20% that secreted by the wild type macrophages. (ii) When primary bone marrow cells were directly stimulated with parasite GPIs, the percentage of cells responding in TLR4-/- cells was 90% that of the wild type levels, whereas the percentage in TLR2-/- cells was 10% that of wild type. In contrast to these results, a negligible number of the primary bone marrow cells from TLR2/TLR4 double knock-out and MyD88-/- mice produced TNF- in response to the parasite GPIs. (iii) Blocking of TLR2 and TLR4 by incubation of human monocytes with anti-TLR2 and anti-TLR4 antibodies caused, respectively, up to a 86 and 49% decrease in the GPI-induced production of TNF-. Taken together, these results clearly demonstrate that P. falciparum GPI-induced cell signaling in macrophages is mediated mainly through TLR2 and to a lesser degree through TLR4. However, it is not clear from the results of this study whether the low level of MyD88-independent activation of macrophages (see Fig. 2) is mediated by TLR4 or by receptors other than TLR2 and TLR4.
The P. falciparum GPI-induced signaling in macrophages leads to the MyD88-dependent activation of MAPKs and NF-B pathways. This is evident from the observed phosphorylation of the downstream MAPKs, namely, ERK1/ERK2, p38, and JNK, and degradation of IB (Fig. 6). The efficient activation of various MAPKs and NF-B pathways in the wild type macrophages and negligible levels of activation of these signaling molecules in MyD88-/- cells further demonstrates that cell signaling by P. falciparum GPIs is predominantly through TLRs. Furthermore, activation of the various downstream MAPKs and NF-B by TLR4-/- and TLR2-/- macrophages and lack of activation of TLR2/TLR4 double knock-out macrophages as measured by FACS (see Fig. 3) are consistent with our conclusion that cell signaling by the parasite GPIs is mediated by both TLR2 and TLR4, although the former is much more efficient than the latter.
Our observation that the P. falciparum GPIs, in addition to being efficiently recognized by TLR2, are also recognized, albeit to lower degree, by TLR4 contrast the property of T. cruzi mucin GPIs (40-42). The latter GPIs have been shown to activate macrophages exclusively through TLR2, and the GPIs are unable to activate TLR2-/- macrophages. Furthermore, as reported in the accompanying paper (53), whereas P. falciparum GPIs can significantly activate cells at 10-40 nanomolar concentrations, the T. cruzi GPIs are at least 10 times more potent in their ability to activate macrophages and the level of inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide produced (28, 29). This difference in the activity of P. falciparum and T. cruzi GPIs is likely related to their characteristic structural features. The GPIs of P. falciparum have a diacylglycerol moiety, whereas T. cruzi GPIs contain a glycerol residue with sn-1-alkyl and sn-2 acyl substituents. Furthermore, although the GPIs of P. falciparum are inositol-acylated and lack substituents on the tetramannose core, the GPIs of T. cruzi lack inositol acylation, and their tetramannose core is substituted with 0-4 galactosyl residues (64).
Despite the above-noted structure-activity differences, however, the GPIs of P. falciparum and T. cruzi GPIs resemble each other closely with regard to the activation of the ERK1/ERK2, p38, JNK, and NF-B pathways. This is because in both cases the GPI-induced signal transduces to cells mainly through a MyD88-dependent upstream signaling pathway, which is common to both TLR2 and TLR4 ligands. In the case of TLR4 ligands, a MyD88-independent pathway is also involved in the activation of cells (65). However, because TLR4-mediated activation in response to P. falciparum GPIs is relatively low, the contribution by this pathway to the overall level of cell activation by the parasite GPIs appears to be negligible or very low, as indicated by the low level of proinflammatory cytokine production in MyD88-/- macrophages.
The results of this study show that TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6 heterodimers can differentially recognize GPIs containing three and two fatty acid substituents in a manner similar to the discrimination of triacylated bacterial lipoproteins and diacylated mycoplasmal lipoproteins. It has been previously shown that triacylated lipoproteins are recognized by TLR2/TLR1, whereas diacylated lipoproteins are recognized by TLR2/TLR6 (37, 38). Thus, our data show that P. falciparum GPIs, containing overall three fatty acid substituents, are preferentially recognized by TLR2/TLR1 and activate mouse macrophages and human monocytes to induce cytokine production. Similarly, the sn-2-lyso-GPIs, prepared from the parasite GPIs by removing the fatty acid at the C-2 position of glycerol with phospholipase A2, are the preferred ligands for human TLR2/TLR6 compared with human TLR2/TLR1. It is interesting that the GPIs containing three and two fatty acid substituents present structural patterns similar to the triacylated and diacylated lipoproteins, respectively, for differential recognition by TLR1 and TLR6 even though GPIs and lipoproteins are totally different classes of compounds. The implication of these observations is that the fatty acid disposition in the ligand, regardless of whether it is a GPI or a lipoprotein, is the critical structural pattern that is favored by TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6, and this preferential recognition might represent the first level of pathogen discrimination by macrophages. The glycan and protein structures of GPIs and lipoproteins might then represent higher levels of pathogen-specific pattern recognition for ligand-specific innate responses. Furthermore, our results are also consistent with previous observations that an intact conjugate of the lipid and glycan portions is essential for the GPI activity, and the lipid or glycan moiety alone is not active (28, 55, 64).
The results of this study demonstrate that macrophage/monocyte cell surface and/or secreted phospholipases regulate the activity of GPIs. Our results show that the P. falciparum GPIs exposed to macrophages are degraded by the cell surface or secreted phospholipases, including phospholipase A2 and phospholipase D. Upon exposure to macrophages in culture medium with or without serum, the majority of the GPIs were converted to products lacking PI formed by the action of GPI-specific phospholipase D. Because the products of phospholipase D are unable to elicit the production of proinflammatory responses, our data indicate that macrophages regulate the activity of GPIs at least in part by degrading them into inactive products. The regulation of GPI activity is expected to be even more efficient in in vivo situations because the mammalian sera contain significant amounts of phospholipase A2 and phospholipase D activity, and therefore, GPIs are more efficiently degraded. This could be one of the mechanisms by which the host immune system modulates its activity that is induced in response to GPIs. Thus, our observations have uncovered the mechanism of innate immune response to P. falciparum GPIs and the ability of host macrophages to modulate the GPI activity during parasite-host interactions. These findings have important implications in parasite survival, host resistance and the process of pathogenesis.
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FOOTNOTES |
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These authors contributed equally.
|| To whom correspondence may be addressed: Dept. of Immunology, Box 357650, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195. Tel.: 206-221-2817; E-mail: hajjar{at}u.washington.edu.
