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J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 281, Issue 27, 18888-18900, July 7, 2006

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Protein Kinase D Intracellular Localization and Activity Control Kinase D-interacting Substrate of 220-kDa Traffic through a Postsynaptic Density-95/Discs Large/Zonula Occludens-1-binding Motif^*

From the Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols," Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arturo Duperier, 4, 28029-Madrid, Spain

Received for publication, March 30, 2006

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Protein kinase D (PKD) controls protein traffic from the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to the plasma membrane of epithelial cells in an isoform-specific manner. However, whether the different PKD isoforms could be selectively regulating the traffic of their specific substrates remains unexplored. We identified the C terminus of the different PKDs that constitutes a postsynaptic density-95/discs large/zonula occludens-1 (PDZ)-binding motif in PKD1 and PKD2, but not in PKD3, to be responsible for the differential control of kinase D-interacting substrate of 220-kDa (Kidins220) surface localization, a neural membrane protein identified as the first substrate of PKD1. A kinase-inactive mutant of PKD3 is only able to alter the localization of Kidins220 at the plasma membrane when its C terminus has been substituted by the PDZ-binding motif of PKD1 or PKD2. This isoform-specific regulation of Kidins220 transport might not be due to differences among kinase activity or substrate selectivity of the PKD isoenzymes but more to the adaptors bound to their unique C terminus. Furthermore, by mutating the autophosphorylation site Ser⁹¹⁶, located at the critical position -2 of the PDZ-binding domain within PKD1, or by phorbol ester stimulation, we demonstrate that the phosphorylation of this residue is crucial for Kidins220-regulated transport. We also discovered that Ser⁹¹⁶ trans-phosphorylation takes place among PKD1 molecules. Finally, we demonstrate that PKD1 association to intracellular membranes is critical to control Kidins220 traffic. Our findings reveal the molecular mechanism by which PKD localization and activity control the traffic of Kidins220, most likely by modulating the recruitment of PDZ proteins in an isoform-specific and phosphorylation-dependent manner.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Protein kinase D1 (PKD1)⁵ (1), also known as PKCµ (2), belongs to a novel family of diacylglycerol (DAG)-stimulated Ser/Thr kinases, composed of two more members PKD2 (3) and PKD3 (4) (reviewed in Refs. 5-7). PKDs contain several well characterized domains, including two cysteine-rich repeats (C1a and C1b) that constitute a C1 domain (CR), a pleckstrin homology domain, and a catalytic domain at the C terminus. The CR domain binds DAG and phorbol esters with high affinity (1, 8) and is involved in the association of PKD1 to cellular membranes such as the plasma membrane and the trans-Golgi network (TGN) (9-12). The pleckstrin homology domain is an autoinhibitory domain that regulates the activity of this kinase (13). PKD is activated by the phosphorylation of two activation loop sites within the catalytic domain through a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent pathway, which stabilizes the enzyme in an active conformation (14, 15). Activated PKD1 autophosphorylates at Ser⁹¹⁶ present at the very C terminus, and this phosphorylation event is frequently used to determine the activation state of this kinase (16-18).

PKD has been shown to participate in many cellular processes, such as cell survival, proliferation, and invasion (5-7), but the regulation of protein transport represents one of the most studied functions of this kinase. PKD1 was first implicated in the control of constitutive membrane protein secretion from the TGN to the cell surface in HeLa cells, by regulating the fission of vesicles originating from this compartment (19-21). It has been also reported that PKD isoforms differentially regulate the exit of vesicle-derived exocytic carriers from the TGN to the basolateral membrane in polarized epithelial cells, supporting the idea that each isoform could be controlling the transport of a subset of vesicular cargoes to the plasma membrane, probably by recognizing them as specific substrates (22). Very recently, phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase III, a Golgi membrane-localized lipid kinase that plays a key role in the structure and function of this organelle, has been found to be a physiological substrate of PKD. All three PKD isoforms, PKD1, PKD2, and to a lesser extent PKD3, phosphorylate phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase III and stimulate its kinase activity, enhancing vesicular stomatitis virus G-protein transport to the plasma membrane (23). This novel discovery has helped to reveal some of the molecular events that enable transport-carrier formation at the TGN. However, the molecular mechanisms by which the different PKD isoforms could be selectively regulating the traffic of some of their specific substrates to the cell surface remain widely unexplored.

A few years ago we cloned kinase D-interacting substrate of 220 kDa (Kidins220) from PC12 cells (24), and we identified this novel protein as the first physiological substrate for PKD1. Kidins220, also known as ARMS (ankyrin-rich membrane spanning; see Ref. 25), is an integral plasma membrane protein predominantly expressed in brain and neurons that presents a polarized location in neural cells, concentrating at the tip of extending neurites and in plasma membrane micro-domains corresponding to lipid rafts (18, 24). The primary amino acid sequence of Kidins220 reveals 11 ankyrin repeats, 4 trans-membrane domains, a proline-rich region, a sterile- motif (or SAM) domain, and a type I postsynaptic density-95/discs large/zonula occludens-1 (PDZ)-binding motif at the very C terminus (24, 25).

Consensus PDZ-binding domains are sequences of four amino acids present at the C terminus of many membrane proteins (ion channels, transporters and receptors) that bind to PDZ proteins (26). The consensus sequence of type I PDZ-binding motifs is X^-3(Ser/Thr)^-2X^-10, where X is any amino acid, is a hydrophobic amino acid and -3, -2, -1, and 0 refer to the position starting from the C-terminal residue. Amino acids at position 0 and -2 are the critical determinants for the binding of specific type I PDZ domains to these ligands (26). PDZ domains are found as single or multiple repeats in nearly 400 unrelated PDZ proteins (26). By binding PDZ ligands, PDZ proteins play a crucial role in cellular polarization as well as in the different processes that control the correct surface expression and function of membrane proteins, including scaffolding and/or retention at the plasma membrane, endocytosis, and asymmetrical delivery from the TGN to the different domains at the cell surface (27-29).

In this study, we report that PKD1 and also PKD2, but not PKD3, specifically regulate the surface localization of Kidins220 in cells of nervous origin such as primary cortical neurons and PC12 cells. Importantly, the differential control exerted by PKD isoforms relies on a newly identified domain, a type I PDZ-binding motif present at the very C-terminal end of PKD1 and PKD2 that is absent in the PKD3 sequence. Importantly, we demonstrate that autophosphorylation or homologous transphosphorylation of the critical Ser⁹¹⁶ at position -2 within this motif in PKD1 is crucial for Kidins220 correct localization at the plasma membrane, likely by modulating the recruitment of PDZ proteins at the TGN. Furthermore, we show by deleting the CR domain that PKD1 association with intracellular membranes is critical to control Kidins220 traffic. Collectively, our findings reveal the molecular mechanism by which PKD intracellular localization and activity specifically regulate the surface localization of Kidins220 and raise the possibility of PKD1 and PKD2 interacting with PDZ proteins. This interaction may be crucial for the association of these isoforms with other proteins and the phosphorylation of other downstream targets, as well as for the regulation of protein cellular trafficking.

	EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Materials—Phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDBu), poly-L-lysine, and laminin were from Sigma. GF I (GF 109203X or bisindolylmaleimide I) was purchased from Calbiochem. The polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies against Kidins220 were prepared as described before (18, 24). A phosphospecific antibody recognizing Ser⁹¹⁶ (16) was kindly provided by Dr. D. Cantrell (University of Dundee, UK). The polyclonal anti-GFP antiserum was a gift from Dr. D. Shima (Cancer Research UK, London, UK). The monoclonal antibody against Thy1 was from Abcam (Abcam Ltd., Cambridge, UK). The monoclonal TGN38 antibody was from Affinity BioReagents (Golden, CO). The rabbit polyclonal antibody against PKD1/2 was from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (D-20, sc-935, Santa Cruz, CA). Polyclonal anti-Trk serum was a gift from Dr. A. Pandiella (Centro de Investigación del Cáncer, Salamanca, Spain). The polyclonal antibody anti-p75 was from Chemicon International (Temecula, CA). Purified recombinant active GST-PKD1 was a generous gift from Dr. P. J. Parker (Cancer Research UK, London, UK). Texas Red-conjugated secondary antibodies were purchased from Jackson ImmunoResearch (West Grove, PA). Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit and anti-mouse secondary antibodies and [-³²P]ATP (370 MBq/ml) were from Amersham Biosciences; and Western Lighting^TM chemiluminescence reagent plus was from PerkinElmer Life Sciences. Oligonucleotide primers were from Invitrogen. All other reagents were from standard suppliers or as indicated in the text.

RNA Isolation and Reverse Transcription-PCR Analysis—Total RNAs from PC12 cells, primary cortical neurons, or NB69 cells were isolated with TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen) and then were reverse-transcribed into cDNAs. These cDNAs were PCR-amplified for 40 cycles using pairs of primers specific for rat PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 (PKD1, sense at position 1106, 5'-GCC AAGGCC TTA AAT GTG AA-3', antisense at position 1402, 5'-GGA GCT TGT CGA GCT GAA TC-3'; PKD2, sense at position 231, 5'-CTC GGA TCT CCA GTC TCT GC-3', antisense at position 531, 5'-CAG AAC CAC CTC CAC CAA GT-3'; PKD3 sense at position 594, 5'-TGG TAA TGT GCA GGG TCA AA-3', antisense at position 894, 5'-GGC TCC TCT GAG TCA TCC AA-3') or human PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 (PKD1/PKDmu sense at position 881, 5'-CGC ACA TCA TCT GCT GAA CT-3', antisense at position 1181, 5'-CTT TCG GTG CAC AAC GTT TA-3'; PKD2, sense at position 1717, 5'-GGG CAG TTT GGA GTG GTC TA-3', antisense at position 2018, 5'-ACC AGG ATC TGG GTG ATG AG-3'; PKD3/PKDnu sense at position 1835, 5'-CCA GCA GGG ATA ACC TGA GA-3', antisense at position 2134, 5'-TTG CTT TTT CCC AGC TCT GT-3'). After amplification, the primers yielded specific PCR fragments of 300 bp, whose identity was verified by sequencing using an Applied Biosystems automated DNA sequencer.

cDNA Constructs and Site-directed Mutagenesis—GFP-PKD1-WT and a kinase-deficient mutant GFP-PKD1-KD (with the mutation D733A) have been described previously (14, 17). GFP-PKD2-WT and GFP-PKD2-KD were kindly provided by Dr. T. Seufferlein (3). pcDNA4/TO-GFP-hPKD3-WT and the kinase-deficient mutant pcDNA4/TO-Flag-hPKD3-KD (with the mutation K605N) were generously provided by Dr. S. Matthews (University of Dundee, UK) and have been described elsewhere (30). pcDNA4/TO-Flag-hPKD3-KD was cut with NotI/XbaI, and the hPKD3-KD fragment was subcloned in-frame C-terminal to the GFP sequence into the same sites of pcDNA4/TO-GFP vector to generate pcDNA4TO-GFP-hPKD3-KD. pcDNA4/TO-GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL and pcDNA4/TO-GFP-PKD3-KD-SVL mutants were obtained by substituting the three last amino acids, EDP, of hPKD3-KD sequence by PCR. The forward primer used (5'-CCC TCA TGC CTG TTA CTC CTC AAG C-3') was annealing at position 1589, close to the EcoRV restriction site (located at position 1705), within the hPKD3 cDNA sequence. The reverse primers (annealing at position 2670) contained a new XbaI site (underlined) and introduced mutations at the three last residues (boldface), EDP to SIL (GAA GAT CCT to AGC ATT CTT, 5'-GCT CTA GAG CTC AGT GAT TAA AGA ATG CTT TC-3') or to SVL (GAA GAT CCT to AGC GTT CTT, 5'-GCT CTA GAG CTC AGT GAT TAA AGA ACG CTT TC-3'). PCR fragments were digested with EcoRV/XbaI to substitute the same sequence in pcDNA4/TO-GFP-hPKD3-KD. The site-specific mutations within the PDZ-binding motif of PKD1, resulting in Ser⁹¹⁶ substitution, were generated by overlap PCR using pBluescript SK(+)-PKD1-KD as a template. Mutants were made by using an oligonucleotide annealing at position 2729, close to the NheI restriction site (located at position 2814), within the PKD1 cDNA sequence and a sequence downstream from the stop codon, corresponding to pBluescript SK(+), near the polylinker region as external forward (5'-TAC CCA CGA AAG CGA TGA CTC CAG-3') and reverse (5'-CCT CAC TAA AGG GAA CAA AAG CTG-3') primers, together with internal reverse and forward primers complementary to each other and containing the Ser⁹¹⁶ substitutions. The sense primers containing the sequence changes encoding the desired mutations were as follows: PKD1-KD^S916E (5'-TGA GCG TGT CGA GAT CCT CTG ATT-3') and PKD1-KD^S916A (5'-TGA GCG TGT CGC CAT CCT CTG ATT-3'). After the second PCR, the amplified product, cut with NheI-/XbaI, was used to replace the original NheI/XbaI segment in pEFBos-GFP-PKD1-KD. The mutant GFP-PKD1^S916A was made by replacing the original NheI/XbaI segment of pEFBos-GFP-PKD1 with the same PCR product utilized to generate PKD1-KD^S916E. To generate the mutant GFP-PKD1^STOP, a new primer introducing a Stop codon (underlined) was used (5' TGA GCG TGT CTG AAT CCT CTG ATT 3'). The mutant GFP-CR-PKD1-KD was generated by replacing the SphI-XbaI fragment in the mutant GFP-CR-PKD1 (described in Ref. 17) by the same fragment coming from the kinase-dead mutant PKD1-D733A (14). Constructs were sequenced using an Applied Biosystems automated DNA sequencer before they were used in transient expression experiments.

Cell Culture and Transfection—Primary dissociated E19 rat cortical primary cultures were prepared from cerebral cortices of 19-day-old fetal Wistar rats as described (18). Briefly, meninges were removed from the embryonic brains, and cortices were dissected. Tissue was resuspended in Neurobasal medium complemented with B-27 supplement (Invitrogen) and 2 mM glutamine. Cells were counted and seeded on laminin (4 µg/ml) and polylysine (10 µg/ml)-covered 35-mm dishes or glasses at a final concentration of 5 x 10⁵ and incubated at 37 °C in an atmosphere of 5% CO₂. Cells were used after 7 days in culture, as indicated in the text. PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cells were cultured at 37 °C in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (Invitrogen), supplemented with 7.5% fetal calf serum, 7.5% horse serum, and 2 mM glutamine, in a humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO₂. When required, cells were treated with GF I (3.5 µM) for 1 h or PDBu (200 nM) for 2.5 h, as specified in the text. For transfection, PC12 cells and primary neurons were seeded at 50-60% confluence on laminin (4 µg/ml) and polylysine (10 µg/ml)-coated glass coverslips. Cells were transfected in serum-free medium by using 1 µg of DNA and 2.5 µl of Lipofectamine 2000® reagent (Invitrogen) per 35-mm dish, according to the manufacturer's specifications, and 48 h later the cells were fixed and processed for immunofluorescence.

RNAi—Human NB69 neuroblastoma cells were transfected using Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen) with pSuper or pSuper-PKD1-RNAi and pSuper-PKD2-RNAi vectors (kindly provided by Drs. A. Toker and P. Storz). Experiments were performed 72 h after transfection. The levels of PKD1/2 were examined by Western blot, and actin signal was used as loading control. For immunofluorescence analysis, pSuper vectors were cotransfected with pEFBos-GFP in a ratio of 10:1 in order to study Kidins220 localization in the green population of cells.

Immunoprecipitation and Western Blot Analysis—Transfected PC12 cells were lysed in radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer (25 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1% Triton X-100, 1% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 150 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA, 2 mM dithiothreitol) with protease and phosphatase inhibitors for 30 min at 4 °C, and lysates were then centrifuged for 10 min at 14,000 rpm. When needed, GFP-PKD1-KD was immunoprecipitated with anti-GFP antibodies. For Western blot analysis, total cell lysates or immunoprecipitates were analyzed by SDS-PAGE followed by transfer to nitrocellulose (Schleicher & Schuell). Membranes were blocked in TBST (20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 137 mM NaCl, 0.05% Tween 20) plus 5% low-fat milk powder and incubated for 1 h at room temperature with the different primary antibodies in blocking solution. Membranes were incubated with the appropriate secondary antibodies conjugated to peroxidase as before, and immunoreactive bands were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence.

In Vitro Kinase Assays—GFP-PKD1 and GFP-PKD1-KD autophosphorylation or trans-phosphorylation by recombinant active PKD1 were determined in GFP-PKD1 or GFP-PKD1-KD immunoprecipitates by the in vitro kinase assay as described previously (14). Briefly, immunoprecipitates were washed twice with radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer and twice with kinase buffer (30 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 10 mM MgCl₂, 2 mM dithiothreitol) containing a 100 µM final concentration of [-³²P]ATP, in the absence or presence of purified active GSTPKD1 (100 ng), for 10 min at 30 °C. The reaction was stopped by adding 2x SDS-PAGE sample buffer (1 M Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 6% SDS, 2 mM EDTA, pH 8.0, 4% 2-mercaptoethanol, 10% glycerol) and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography or Western blotting with anti-PKD1-Ser(P)⁹¹⁶-specific antibody. Peptide phosphorylation of Kidins220-Ser⁹¹⁹ and Kidins220-Ala⁹¹⁹ was determined by in vitro kinase assays as described previously (24).

Immunofluorescence and Confocal Microscopy—For immunofluorescence, transfected cells grown on coverslips were fixed for 2 min in 4% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline at 4 °C, followed by methanol for 2 min at -20 °C. After blocking (1% bovine serum albumin in phosphate-buffered saline for 30 min), cells were incubated with the corresponding primary antibodies for 1 h at room temperature, and immunoreactivity was detected with the suitable fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody before mounting on slides with Mowiol 4-88 (Harland Co., UK). All confocal images were acquired using an inverted Zeiss LSM510 Meta laser confocal microscope (Germany) with a 63x Plan-Apochromatic oil immersion objective and were normalized for each color separately. Confocal images presented are single sections of a series as specified in the text and figure legends. Images were processed for presentation with Zeiss LSM5 Image Browser and Adobe Photoshop 7.0 (Adobe Systems Inc.).

Quantitative Analysis—PC12 cells were transfected with the different PKD mutants. After immunostaining with Kidins220 antibody, 20-30 transfected cells were examined. Positive cells for GFP-PKD aggregates, Kidins220 aggregates, and aggregates where both proteins colocalized were counted (Figs. 1, 4, and 6). The percentage was calculated related to the total number of transfected cells examined.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 Differentially Regulate Cell Surface Localization of Kidins220 in Neurons and PC12 Cells—It has been published recently that the transport of basolateral membrane protein carriers in polarized epithelial cells is regulated by PKD1 and PKD2 but escapes from PKD3 control (22). These authors (22) suggest that the various PKD isoforms could recognize different vesicular cargoes as specific substrates and selectively control in this way their transport to the cell surface. Because Kidins220 was the first substrate identified for PKD1, as an integral membrane protein very abundant at the plasma membrane of neural cells (18, 24), we investigated whether PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 could differentially regulate cell surface targeting of Kidins220 in E19 rat primary cortical neurons and PC12 cells. First, we analyzed the expression of the three isoforms in our cell systems by reverse transcription-PCR and discovered that primary cortical neurons expressed all members of the PKD family, whereas PC12 cells expressed only PKD1 and PKD2 (not shown). To study the possible differential effect of PKD isoforms on Kidins220 transport, we first expressed GFP-tagged wild type or kinase-dead PKD1 (GFP-PKD1 and GFP-PKD1-KD, respectively) in both cell types. When expressing wild type PKD1, endogenous Kidins220 was present at the plasma membrane and in small punctate vesicles within the cell body (Fig. 1, A and B, upper panels), and GFPPKD1 was found distributed throughout the cytosol, colocalizing at some membrane areas with Kidins220 staining (Fig. 1, A and B, upper panels). The immunostaining pattern of Kidins220 in these GFP-PKD1-transfected cells was very similar to the one observed in untransfected cells (data not shown and see Refs. 18 and 24), suggesting that the expression of wild type PKD1 did not significantly alter endogenous Kidins220 location. However, when GFP-PKD1-KD was expressed, Kidins220 was now mainly found accumulated in intracellular clusters, largely colocalizing with the inactive mutant (Fig. 1, A and B, lower panels). A quantitative analysis carried out in transfected PC12 cells (see "Experimental Procedures" for details) showed that GFP-PKD1-KD and Kidins220 colocalized in 80% of the intracellular aggregates (Fig. 1C, white bar). To explore further the decrease of Kidins220 staining at the surface of cells expressing the kinase-dead mutant GFP-PKD1-KD, transfected PC12 cells were also immunolabeled with Thy1. This glycosylphosphatidylinositol protein highly colocalizes with Kidins220, especially at the plasma membrane of PC12 cells in normal conditions (18). As shown in Fig. 1D, very little colocalization of Kidins220 and Thy1 staining could be observed at the surface of cells expressing GFP-PKD1-KD. From these results it can be concluded further that although Thy1 and Kidins220 are present at the same plasma membrane domains in neural cells, only Kidins220 surface targeting is controlled by PKD1 activity.

View larger version (59K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 1. The expression of kinase-inactive PKD1 alters the localization of Kidins220 at the plasma membrane in neural cells. E19 rat primary cortical neurons in culture for 7 days (A) and PC12 (B) cells transfected with GFP-PKD1 wild type (GFP-PKD1) or a kinase-dead mutant (GFP-PKD1-KD) were immunostained with anti-Kidins220 antibodies. In cells transfected with GFP-PKD1, Kidins220 presents its normal distribution in an intracellular compartment and at the plasma membrane, whereas GFP-PKD1 is found predominantly in the cytoplasm. In contrast, in cells transfected with GFPPKD1-KD, Kidins220 is accumulated intracellularly colocalizing with the kinase-dead mutant. Quantitative analysis of a representative experiment was carried out in GFP-PKD1-KD-transfected PC12 cells (% of positive cells) (C). Among this population (n = 29), we determined the percentage of cells containing GFP-PKD1-KD (black bar) and Kidins220 (gray bar)in aggregates in the same cell (92 and 76%, respectively). These aggregates were double-positive for GFP-PKD1-KD and Kidins220 in 80% of the cells counted (white bar). PC12 cells transfected with GFPPKD1-KD were immunostained with anti-Kidins220 (red) and anti-Thy1 (blue) antibodies to show the decrease of Kidins220 at the plasma membrane (D). See that Thy1 cell surface staining is not affected by the expression of inactive PKD1. Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to single sections taken at the middle of the cells. A magnified detail of the merge images from neurons is depicted (merge zoom). Scale bar, neurons, merge images 10 µM, merge zoom images 5 µM; PC12 cells, merge images 10 µM.

View larger version (88K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 2. PKD1-KD does not affect the cell surface localization of two interacting partners of Kidins220, the neurotrophin receptors Trks and p75. Cortical primary neurons (A) and PC12 cells (B) were transfected with GFP-PKD1-KD and immunostained with anti-Trk (upper panels) and anti-p75 (lower panels) antibodies. Images show how the localization pattern of both proteins is not affected by the presence of kinase-dead mutant PKD1 (neither Trks nor p75 are accumulated with GFP-PKD1-KD in the intracellular compartment). Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to single sections taken at the middle of the cells. A magnified detail of the merge images from neurons is depicted (merge zoom). Scale bar, neurons, merge images 10 µM, merge zoom images 5 µM; PC12 cells, merge images 10 µM.

A Type I PDZ-binding Motif Identified in PKD1 and PKD2 Sequence Is Responsible for the Control of Kidins220 Surface Localization—In accordance to Yeaman et al. (22), a possible explanation for our results could be that PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 have different substrate specificities and therefore can only control the transport of their specific substrates. However, such a fine selectivity seems unlikely considering the extremely high degree of homology shared by the catalytic domains of PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 (5, 7). To study whether the three members of the PKD family could differentially phosphorylate Kidins220, we carried out peptide phosphorylation assays. We have published previously (24) that PKD1 phosphorylates Ser⁹¹⁹ within the Kidins220 sequence. By using a peptide containing Ser⁹¹⁹ and a peptide in which this residue was substituted by an alanine, and by carrying out in vitro kinase assays, we demonstrated that PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 were all able to efficiently phosphorylate Ser⁹¹⁹ (not shown), suggesting that Kidins220 could be a good substrate for the three isoenzymes in vivo. This result indicates that substrate specificity might not be responsible for the differential control of Kidins220 transport. We then considered that PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 could contain distinct features or undefined domains responsible for their differential effects on protein transport regulation and in particular on Kidins220 cell surface destination. When we compared the sequences of the three PKD isoforms, looking for outstanding differences, we found that PKD1 and PKD2 contain a potential type I PDZ-binding motif at the C terminus that is absent in PKD3 (Fig. 4A). The type I PDZ-binding sequences of PKD1 (Val^-3-Ser^-2-Ile^-1-Leu⁰), PKD2 (-Ile^-3-Ser^-2-Val^-1-Leu⁰), and interestingly also of Kidins220 (-Glu^-3-Ser^-2-Ile^-1-Leu⁰), are extremely similar, sharing the leucine and serine at the crucial positions 0 and -2, respectively, suggesting that the same PDZ proteins could form complexes with them. By contrast, PKD3 C terminus does not constitute a PDZ ligand of any type (-Glu^-3-Glu^-2-Asp^-1-Pro⁰) (Fig. 4A). Because PDZ protein interactions can drastically influence the surface localization of multiple membrane proteins, the PDZ ligand of PKD1 and PKD2 could be responsible for the observed effects on Kidins220 distribution. To approach this issue, we investigated whether the PDZ-binding motif of PKD1 and PKD2 could change the isoform specificity of PKD3 and confer on it the ability to control Kidins220 localization. For this purpose, we first expressed in neural cells a GFP-PKD3-KD mutant where the last three C-terminal amino acids of PKD3 (EDP) had been substituted by the three amino acids corresponding to the PDZ-binding motif of PKD1 (SIL) (see scheme in Fig. 4A). In neurons and PC12 cells expressing this new mutant, Kidins220 staining was now enriched at the perinuclear region, where both proteins colocalized (Fig. 4, B and C, upper panels). Furthermore, a chimeric protein in which the most C-terminal sequence of PKD2 (SVL) replaced the equivalent region in GFP-PKD3-KD provoked the same effects on Kidins220 trafficking (Fig. 4, B and C, lower panels). A quantitative analysis carried out in PC12 cells transfected with GFPPKD3-KD or GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL showed that although GFPPKD3-KD hardly overlapped with the Kidins220 signal, the mutant carrying the last three amino acids of PKD1 colocalized in the same areas in 88% of the transfected population (Fig. 4D, white bar). Similarly to what was observed after expressing GFP-PKD1-KD, a significant decrease of Kidins220 staining at the cell surface of PC12 cells transfected with these two mutants (GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL and GFP-PKD3-KD-SVL) could be detected by double immunolabeling with Thy1 antibody (Fig. 4E). These results demonstrate that the consensus PDZ-binding sequence in PKD1 and PKD2, which may constitute an important docking site for the interaction of specific PDZ proteins, is critical for the specific control of Kidins220 traffic. On the other hand, these data suggest that some of the effects of PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 on other presumably so-called "specific cargoes" or substrates might not only be due to differences among isoform-specific kinase activities or substrates specificities but also to the binding partners (PDZ proteins for PKD1 and PKD2 and maybe other adaptors for PKD3) recruited through their unique C terminus.

View larger version (90K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 3. Kidins220 localization at the surface of neural cells is not regulated by PKD3 activity. Cortical primary neurons (A) and PC12 cells (B) were transiently transfected with GFP-PKD3-KD and immunostained for endogenous Kidins220. In GFPPKD3-KD-transfected cells, Kidins220 staining is normal and shows hardly any colocalization with kinase-dead PKD3. PC12 cells transfected with GFPPKD3-KD were immunostained with anti-Kidins220 (red) and anti-Thy1 (blue) antibodies to show that Kidins220 is present at the plasma membrane colocalizing with Thy1 (purple color in the merge images) (C). Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to single sections taken at the middle of the cells. A magnified detail of the merge images from neurons is depicted (merge zoom). Scale bar, neurons, merge images 10 µM, merge zoom images 5 µM; PC12 cells, merge images 10 µM.

View larger version (52K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 4. A type I PDZ-binding motif identified in PKD1 and PKD2 C-terminal sequence is responsible for the control of Kidins220 surface localization. Scheme showing the last six amino acids within the C-terminal sequence of PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 (CR, cysteine-rich domain; PH, pleckstrin homology domain; C, catalytic domain; PDZ L, PDZ ligand) (A). Note that the C-terminal end of PKD3 does not constitute a PDZ-binding domain. Critical amino acids at position 0 and -2 of the PDZ-binding motifs of PKD1 and PKD2 are labeled in red. Cortical primary neurons (B) and PC12 cells (C) were transfected with GFP-PKD3-KD mutants where the last three amino acids at the C-terminal end (EDP) had been changed to SIL or SVL (C-terminal ends of PKD1, upper panels, and PKD2, lower panels, respectively). Note that now Kidins220 colocalizes intracellularly with GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL or -SVL mutants (compare these images with Fig. 3), indicating that the PDZ-binding motifs of PKD1 and PKD2 (absent in PKD3) confer on PKD3 the control of Kidins220 surface localization. A quantitative analysis of a representative experiment was carried out in GFP-PKD3-KD- or GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL-transfected PC12 cells (% of positive cells) (D). Among this population (n = 20 and n = 30, respectively), we determined the percentage of cells containing retained GFP-PKD3-KD or GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL (black bars, 100 and 100%, respectively) and Kidins220 aggregates in the same cell (gray bars, 0 and 85%, respectively). These aggregates were double-positive for GFP-PKD3-KD/Kidins220 and GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL/Kidins220 in 0 and 88% of the cells counted, respectively (white bars). PC12 cells transfected with GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL or PKD3-KD-SVL were immunostained with anti-Kidins220 (red) and anti-Thy1 (blue) antibodies to study their presence at the cell surface (E). Only merge images are shown. See that the expression of both mutants decreases Kidins220 staining at the plasma membrane without affecting Thy1 localization. Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to a single section taken at the middle of the cells. A magnified detail of the merge images from neurons is depicted (merge zoom). Scale bar, neurons, merge images 10 µM, merge zoom images 5 µM; PC12 cells, merge images 10 µM.

PDBu Treatment Restores Kidins220 Surface Localization in Neural Cells Expressing PKD1-KD and Induces the Phosphorylation of PKD1-KD at Ser⁹¹⁶ in Vivo—Neurons and PC12 cells contain a considerable amount of endogenous PKD1 that remains mainly inactive under basal culture conditions (18). Treatment of these neural cells with phorbol esters triggers endogenous PKD1 activation and autophosphorylation on Ser⁹¹⁶ (18). To explore if activation of endogenous PKD1 could normalize Kidins220 targeting to the cell surface in cells expressing GFP-PKD1-KD, we treated transfected PC12 cultures for 2.5 h with PDBu. Most importantly, although GFP-PKD1-KD pattern was not modified by the treatment, localization of Kidins220 at the plasma membrane was restored after PDBu stimulation (Fig. 7A). The presence of Kidins220 at the surface in these phorbol ester-treated GFP-PKD1-KD-transfected cells was also verified by Thy1 costaining (not shown). This effect was blocked by using the pharmacological inhibitor GF 109203X (GF I) (Fig. 7A), a drug normally used to hamper PKD1 activation and autophosphorylation downstream the PKC pathways (18, 36).

View larger version (84K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 5. Kidins220 colocalizes with PKD1-KD and PKD3-KD-SIL at the TGN of neural cells. PC12 cells transfected with GFP-PKD1-KD, GFP-PKD3-KD, or GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL were immunostained with antibodies against Kidins220 (blue) and TGN38 (red). A significant amount of Kidins220 colocalized with GFP-PKD1-KD, GFP-PKD3-KD-SIL, and TGN38 at the perinuclear region (upper and lower panels). GFP-PKD3-KD signal also overlapped with TGN38 staining, although Kidins220 was almost undetectable at this compartment and appeared at the plasma membrane (middle panel). Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscope images correspond to a single section taken at the middle of the cells. Scale bar, 10 µM.

PKD1 Trans-phosphorylates Ser⁹¹⁶ within PKD1-KD in Vitro— To provide further evidence supporting that PKD1 could trans-phosphorylate other PKD1 molecules, total lysates from PC12 cells transiently transfected with GFP-PKD1 or GFP-PKD1-KD were immunoprecipitated with anti-GFP antibodies, and an in vitro kinase assay was carried out in the absence or presence of purified recombinant active PKD1 (Fig. 8). Compared with GFP-PKD1 (Fig. 8, 2nd lane), GFPPKD1-KD alone (Fig. 8, 4th lane) did not show either kinase activity (autoradiography) or phosphorylation on Ser⁹¹⁶ (Western blot). Recombinant active PKD1 was able to phosphorylate the kinase-dead mutant in vitro (where it appeared radioactive and phosphorylated at Ser⁹¹⁶) and also the wild type protein very slightly (Fig. 8, 3rd and 1st lanes, respectively), demonstrating that trans-phosphorylation between PKD1 molecules occurs. These findings lead to several important considerations. For many years, the phosphorylation of Ser⁹¹⁶ has been taken as a direct and easy way to measure PKD1 activity with phosphospecific antibodies, allowing the scientific community to avoid radioactive in vitro kinase assays. The use of the phospho-antibody to assess the activation state of physiological endogenous PKD1 would still be appropriate. However, our data question the use of these antibodies to determine PKD1 activity in certain experiments, especially in those aimed to show the activation state of different mutants or constructs in cells where endogenous levels and activity of the enzyme are high. On the other hand, although most likely in vivo autophosphorylation would take place with higher efficiency than trans-phosphorylation, the results obtained here also suggest that the effects of kinase-inactive mutants can be dramatically different depending primarily on the activation state of endogenous PKD1.

View larger version (49K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 6. Phosphorylation of Ser916 at the critical position -2 within the PDZ-binding motif of PKD1-KD restores Kidins220 transport. Scheme showing the substitution of Ser916 at position -2 of the PDZ-binding domain of PKD1 to alanine (S916A) or glutamic acid (S916E) in GFP-PKD1-KD mimics PKD1 autophosphorylation state (nonphosphorylated versus phosphorylated, respectively) (A). Cortical primary neurons (B) and PC12 cells (C) were transfected with GFP-PKD1-KDS916A (upper panels) or GFP-PKD1-KDS916E (lower panels) mutants, and Kidins220 immunostaining was analyzed. Confocal microscopy images of cells transfected with GFP-PKD1-KDS916A showed the same intracellular colocalization with Kidins220 than the kinase-dead mutant (see Fig. 1). In contrast, Kidins220 immunostaining is normal in cells expressing GFP-PKD1-KDS916E. Quantitative analysis of a representative experiment was carried out in GFP-PKD1-KDS916A- or GFP-PKD1-KDS916E-transfected PC12 cells (% of positive cells) (D). Among this population (n = 30 and n = 27, respectively), we determined the percentage of cells containing retained GFP-PKD1-KDS916A or GFP-PKD1-KDS916E (black bars, 87 and 85%, respectively) and Kidins220 aggregates in the same cell (gray bars, 73 and 14%, respectively). Kidins220 colocalized with GFP-PKD1-KDS916A or GFP-PKD1-KDS916E in 87 and 14% of the cells counted, respectively (white bars). PC12 cells transfected with GFP-PKD1-KDS916A or GFP-PKD1-KDS916E were immunostained with anti-Kidins220 (red) and anti-Thy1 (blue) antibodies to study their presence at the cell surface (E). Only merge images are shown. See that only the expression of GFP-PKD1-KDS916A decreases Kidins220 staining at the plasma membrane. Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to a single section taken at the middle of the cells. A magnified detail of the merge images from neurons is depicted (merge zoom). Scale bar, neurons, merge images 10 µM, merge zoom images 5 µM; PC12 cells, merge images 10 µM.

View larger version (31K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 7. PDBu treatment restores Kidins220 surface localization in neural cells expressing PKD1-KD and induces the phosphorylation of PKD1-KD at Ser916 in vivo. PC12 cells transiently transfected with GFP-PKD1-KD for 48 h were left unstimulated or were stimulated with PDBu (200 nM) for 2.5 h, fixed, and immunostained for endogenous Kidins220 (A). Note how the colocalization of GFP-PKD1-KD with Kidins220 is lost after PDBu stimulation, indicating that PDBu treatment restores endogenous Kidins220 transport (2nd left panel). Preincubation of GFP-PKD1-KD-transfected PC12 cells with the PKC inhibitor GF I (3.5 µM) for 1 h prior to PDBu treatment (200 nM for 2.5 h) showed that pharmacological inhibition of PKC prevents the effects of PDBu on Kidins220 transport. PC12 cells transiently transfected with GFP-PKD1-KDS916A for 48 h were left unstimulated or were stimulated with PDBu (200 nM) for 2.5 h, fixed, and immunostained for endogenous Kidins220 (B). Under these conditions, PDBu treatment does not restore Kidins220 localization at the plasma membrane. PC12 cells transfected with GFP-PKD1-KD were untreated (-) or pretreated (+) for 1 h with GF I (3.5 µM) and then left unstimulated or stimulated with PDBu (200 nM) for 2.5 h (C). The presence of active endogenous PKD1 phosphorylated at Ser916 (PKD1-Ser(P)916) was analyzed by Western blot of total cell lysates. PDBu treatment enhances endogenous PKD1 autophosphorylation on Ser916 (band of 110 kDa) and provokes a significant increase in GFP-PKD1-KD-Ser916 phosphorylation (band of 140 kDa), suggesting that endogenous PKD1 could be trans-phosphorylating the kinase-dead mutant in these cells. This effect is blocked by pretreating the cells with GF I (4th lane). GFP-PKD1-KD and endogenous PKD1/2 levels were determined by Western blotting (WB) with anti-GFP and anti-PKD1/2 antibodies (lower panels). Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to a single section taken at the middle of the cells. Scale bar, 10 µM.

Depending on the cell context and the stimulation conditions, the different PKD isoforms can be targeted to different intracellular locations such as the Golgi apparatus, the cytosol, the plasma membrane, or the nucleus (5, 7). Most of the effects of PKD controlling protein transport have been described in cells where PKD1 (endogenous or ectopically expressed) is bound to the TGN and have been studied by using kinase-inactive mutants (9, 10, 12, 19-22). It has been also described, at least for PKD1, that the inactivation of the kinase renders a protein that is constitutively bound to the TGN through the CR domain (9, 10, 12, 21). Our experiments show that in neural cells under basal conditions endogenous PKD1/2 (18) and ectopically expressed wild type isoforms are mainly cytosolic, but the kinase-defective mutants of the three PKD isoforms localize to intracellular membranes enriched in the TGN, a phenotype similar to the one observed in nonpolarized or polarized epithelial cells (22). Here we also demonstrate that the association of PKD1 kinase-inactive mutants to intracellular membranes is critical for the control of Kidins220 transport (Fig. 9). Altogether, these data further support the idea that PKD intracellular localization and association to the TGN might be the first crucial step in mediating the regulation of protein transport at this compartment. Our results also strengthen the fact that the distinct cellular compartmentalization of PKDs in different cells, tissues, developmental stages, or pathological circumstances may lead to dramatically different consequences on cellular functions such as protein transport.

With our results we propose a model providing a possible molecular mechanism by which TGN-bound PKD1 can regulate the exit of Kidins220 from this compartment through an autophosphorylation-regulated interaction of its PDZ-binding motif with a putative PDZ protein (Fig. 10). This model would also operate for PKD2 but not for PKD3. According to our model, the cytosolic enzyme would not be able to control protein transport. In cell types or under circumstances in which PKD is not bound to the TGN, it would not be regulating this process. In our cell systems under the studied conditions, ectopically expressed wild type and endogenous PKDs are mainly cytosolic, not bound to the TGN (see Fig. 1A) (18). In this context, and in agreement with our hypothesis, in neural cells the overexpression of wild type PKD1/2 and, more importantly, the RNAi of endogenous PKD1/2 (not shown) are not having any significant influence on Kidins220 cellular distribution. To exert a control on Kidins220 traffic, PKD needs to be associated with the TGN. Supporting this notion, the deletion of the CR domain within PKD1-KD renders an inactive mutant that is now cytosolic and, most importantly, is unable to affect the transport of Kidins220 (Fig. 9). Once the enzyme is located at this intracellular membranous compartment, it would be able to control the cell surface targeting of Kidins220 through its activity. PKD1 by auto/trans-phosphorylating the critical Ser⁹¹⁶ within its PDZ-binding motif (as we also demonstrate herein), would regulate its interaction with specific PDZ proteins. Considering that PDZ proteins control the asymmetrical delivery of membrane proteins from the TGN to the different plasma membrane domains (27-29), and that we detect Kidins220 at this compartment in cells expressing inactive forms of PKD bearing a PDZ-binding motif (PKD1 and PKD2), it is feasible that PKD1/2 could regulate the exit of cell surface destined transport carriers containing Kidins220 from the TGN through the interaction with this family of proteins. This model would easily explain why the expression of inactive PKD mutants blocks the traffic of specific TGN-derived vesicle carriers described by others (22) in an isoform-specific manner and how PKD activity can normalize the transport process.

View larger version (74K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 8. Trans-phosphorylation among PKD1 molecules. Total lysates from PC12 cells transiently transfected with GFP-PKD1 or GFP-PKD1-KD were immunoprecipitated (IP) with anti-GFP antibodies. Immunoprecipitates were subjected to an in vitro kinase assay in the absence (-) or presence (+) of recombinant purified active PKD1. Note that the mutant alone (4th lane) presents neither kinase activity (autoradiograph, upper panel) nor phosphorylation on Ser916 (Western blot (WB), middle panel) compared with wild type kinase (2nd lane). However, in the presence of active PKD1, the kinase-dead mutant is phosphorylated at Ser916, demonstrating that trans-phosphorylation occurs among PKD1 molecules. GFP-PKD1 and GFP-PKD1-KD levels in the immunoprecipitates were determined by Western blotting with anti-GFP antibodies (lower panel). Results are representative of three independent experiments.

View larger version (59K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 9. A kinase-dead mutant of PKD1 lacking the CR domain does not alter Kidins220 localization. Scheme of PKD1-KD and CR-PKD1-KD shows a mutant in which the CR domain responsible for DAG binding and association to membranes has been deleted (A). PC12 cells were transfected with GFP-PKD1-KD (upper panels) or GFP-CR-PKD1-KD (lower panels) mutants and Kidins220 immunostaining was analyzed (B). GFP-CR-PKD1-KD presents a cytosolic localization and is not present in intracellular clusters. Most importantly, this new mutant is not able to control Kidins220 traffic, suggesting that the association of PKD1-KD to intracellular membranes at the TGN is crucial for the regulation of Kidins220 transport. Results are representative of three independent experiments. Confocal microscopy images correspond to single sections taken at the middle of the cells. Scale bar, 10 µM.

View larger version (36K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 10. The molecular mechanism by which PKD1 controls Kidins220 transport to the cell surface involves two steps as follows: first, the association of PKD to intracellular TGN membranes, and second, the auto/trans-phosphorylation of the PDZ-binding motif of the kinase at Ser916 in this compartment. In some cell types PKD1 (and also PKD1-KD) is bound to the TGN through the binding of its CR domain to diacylglycerol (A). The association of PKD1 to intracellular TGN-membranes is a prerequisite to control Kidins220 traffic. We have used the PKD1-KD mutant in the representation of the model for being the most extreme example of the TGN-bound enzymes. Because the PDZ-binding sequence within PKD1 and Kidins220 is identical, they could form a tripartite complex with the same multi-PDZ domain protein at the TGN under circumstances in which the PDZ-binding motif of PKD1 is not phosphorylated (e.g. PKD1-KD). The nonphosphorylated PDZ-binding motif of PKD1-KD (or inactive PKD1 associated to the TGN) constitutes a high affinity docking site for a PDZ protein, and this putative PDZ protein would be retained there. Consequently, the transport of exocytic carriers containing Kidins220 from the TGN would be hampered too. PKD1-Ser916 phosphorylation at the TGN (e.g. phorbol ester stimulation of autophosphorylation of endogenous PKD1, homologous trans-phosphorylation of PKD1-KD by endogenous PKD1, or expression of PKD1-KDS916E) would decrease dramatically its affinity to bind the PDZ protein, leading to the dissociation of PKD1-PDZ complexes and allowing the exit of Kidins220 carriers to the cell surface (B). This model would also operate for PKD2. We can conclude that the association of PKD to the TGN is a prerequisite to control Kidins220 traffic through the interaction of the PDZ-binding motif with PDZ proteins probably related to this compartment in a phosphorylation-dependent manner.

Our model could constitute a general mechanism for the regulation of the sorting of other cargoes by PKD1/2 activity by modulating the release of PDZ proteins from its auto/trans-phosphorylated PDZ-binding motif. Determining which is/are the PDZ protein(s) responsible for the dramatic effects exerted by the different PKD isoforms on the transport of Kidins220 or other specific cargoes will undoubtedly provide a better understanding of how protein trafficking is controlled in the complex membrane/cytoskeletal networks.

	FOOTNOTES

 
^* This work was supported in part by the "Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia" Grant SAF2005-05625 and the "Comunidad de Madrid" Grant GR/SAL/0808/2004 (to T. I.). The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

The on-line version of this article (available at http://www.jbc.org) contains supplemental Figs. S1-S7.

¹ Recipient of Fellowship I3P and supported by Biotools B & M Labs SA, and the CSIC.

² Recipient of a "Ramón y Cajal" contract from "Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia."

³ Predoctoral "Formación de Personal Universitario" fellow from the "Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia."

⁴ To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 34-915854487; Fax: 34-915854401; E-mail: tiglesias{at}iib.uam.es.

⁵ The abbreviations used are: PKD, protein kinase D; DAG, diacylglycerol; GFP, green fluorescent protein; Kidins220, kinase D interacting substrate of 220 kDa; PDBu, phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate; PDZ, postsynaptic density-95/Discs large/zonula occludens-1; PKC, protein kinase C; TGN, trans-Golgi network; RNAi, RNA interference; CR, cysteine-rich.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
We thank A. Rodríguez-Penña, M. Diaz-Guerra, and M. Campanero for helpful discussions. We especially thank J. Pérez for the valuable help in the elaboration of the figures and to the general services of animal care, sequencing, and confocal microscopy. We are grateful to P. J. Parker for the generous gift of purified active PKD1 and A. Toker and P. Storz for kindly sending us Hsp27 antibodies and RNAi vectors for PKD1/2. We also thank T. Seufferlein for sending us PKD2 constructs and S. Matthews and D. Cantrell for providing us PKD3 constructs and PKD1 anti-Ser⁹¹⁶ antibody.

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