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J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 281, Issue 34, 24553-24565, August 25, 2006
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From the Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
Received for publication, January 31, 2006 , and in revised form, June 19, 2006.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxasole-4-propionate (AMPA), kainite, and N-methyl-D-aspartate subtypes, whereas the other is G-protein-coupled metabotropic receptors (mGluRs) classified into the three different subtypes, group I (mGluR1 and mGluR5), group II (mGluR2 and mGluR3), and group III (mGluR4, mGluR6, mGluR7, and mGluR8) (1, 2). The group I subtype stimulates the hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids in association with Gq/11 protein, whereas both the group II and III subtypes inhibit the formation of cAMP with the aid of Gi/o protein.
However, several independent lines of evidence indicate that Glu may act as a "cytokine" rather than a "neurotransmitter" to affect a variety of cellular activities in different tissues (3, 4). For example, recent studies have shown that Glu may be one of the endogenous paracrine (autocrine) factors used for intercellular communications through particular GluRs in cartilage (5-7) and bone (8, 9). In cultured rat costal chondrocytes where constitutive expression is seen with mRNA for the GluR3 subunit of the iGluR subtype AMPA receptors, the addition of AMPA markedly stimulates the release of endogenous Glu in a Ca2+-dependent manner (5). Moreover, in cultured mouse embryonic metatarsals isolated before vascularization, chondral mineralization was almost completely abolished in the presence of the group III mGluR agonist L-(1)-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate (L-AP4) in a manner sensitive to an antagonist, without inducing any apoptotic cell death (6).
On the other hand, Glu transporters are required for the termination of signal transduction mediated by Glu as well as for the prevention of neurotoxicity mediated by this endogenous excitotoxin in the central nervous system. These Glu transporters are classified into 5 different isoforms, including Glu aspartate transporter (EAAT1; excitatory amino acid transporter 1), Glu transporter-1 (EAAT2), excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAT3), EAAT4 and EAAT5 so far (10, 11). In addition to these Glu transporters, the sodium-independent and chloride-dependent high affinity Glu uptake carrier, cystine/Glu antiporter, has been identified in a variety of tissues (12, 13). This antiporter is a heterodimeric complex between the ubiquitous CD98 heavy chain, also referred to as 4F2hc, and the xCT light chain responsible for the determination of substrate specificity. The view that extracellular cystine is incorporated into the cytoplasm through the bi-directional cystine/Glu antiporter as a substrate for the biosynthesis of intracellular glutathione (GSH) is prevailing (14, 15). Although we have demonstrated that extracellular Glu could be brought into intracellular locations through particular EAAT isoforms expressed by the rodent chondrocytes (7), little attention has been paid to the possible expression and functionality of the cystine/Glu antiporter in chondrocytes.
In this study we have investigated the role of the cystine/Glu antiporter in chondral differentiation and cell survival in cultures of primary chondrocytes, prepared from adult rat costicartilage, and in murine embryonic metatarsals, isolated before vascularization. In these systems, cells differentiate from resting to proliferating, prehypertrophic, hypertrophic, and calcified chondrocytes without the involvement of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and capillary invasion (16, 17).
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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-Cyclopropyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine (CPPG) was supplied by Tocris Cookson (Bristol, United Kingdom). DMEM and MEM were purchased from Invitrogen. Total Glutathione Quantification Kit was obtained from Dojindo (Osaka, Japan). Dihydrodichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFDA) was provided by Molecular Probes. Other chemicals used were all of the highest purity commercially available.
Embryonic Metatarsal Rudiment Organ Culture—The three central metatarsal rudiments were isolated from ddY mice embryos at 15.5 days post-gestation. Each of three metatarsals was individually placed in a well of a 24-well plate containing 1 ml of organ culture medium: MEM supplemented with 50 µg/ml ascorbic acid, 1 mM 
-glycerophosphate, and 0.25% fetal bovine serum in either the presence or absence of different agents. These explants were grown at 37 °C in a humidified 5% CO2 incubator for 5 days unless otherwise indicated. On the day of the experiments, the total length of each bone rudiment and the length of each middle mineralized part determined by alizarin red staining, were measured for subsequent calculation of the mineralization ratios based on the length under an Olympus IMT-2-21 dissecting microscope. Similar results were obtained when mineralization ratios were calculated based on the areas in place of the lengths.
Histological Analysis—On day 5 cultured metatarsal rudiments were harvested and fixed with 10% formalin neutral buffer solution, followed by the decalcification with 20% EDTA and subsequent immersion in 30% sucrose overnight at 4 °C. Metatarsals were then dissected for sections with a thickness of 5 µm in a cryostat for histological analyses. Sections were stained with alizarin red, hematoxylin and eosin, and Alcian blue under standard procedures, respectively. The activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was determined by the enzymatic histochemistry. In brief, mounted sections were preserved in PBS at room temperature, and then staining was developed by the incubation in ALP buffer (0.01 M Tris-HCl (pH 9.5), 0.1 M NaCl, 0.05 M MgCl2) supplemented with 100-fold diluted solution of nitro blue tetrazolium chloride/5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate as a substrate for ALP for 1.5 h at 37 °C, followed by several rinses in phosphate buffer. Sections were finally mounted in 50% glycerol, and photographs of sections were taken using an Olympus microscope.
Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase Deoxyuridine Triphosphate Nick End Labeling (TUNEL) Assay—TUNEL staining was performed to detect apoptotic cells based on labeling of DNA strand breaks. Metatarsals cultured for 5 days were fixed with 10% formalin neutral buffer solution, followed by the decalcification with 20% EDTA and subsequent immersion in 30% sucrose overnight at 4 °C. Metatarsals were then dissected for frozen sections with a thickness of 5 µm in a cryostat. Mounted sections of metatarsals were then subjected to the TUNEL assay with a TUNEL detection kit according to the manufacturer's instructions.
In Situ Hybridization Analysis—On day 5 cultured metatarsal rudiments were harvested, followed by the fixation with 10% formalin and subsequent decalcification with 20% EDTA for in situ hybridization as previously described (6). In brief, tibiae were dissected for frozen sections with a thickness of 5 µm in a cryostat. Sections mounted on slide glasses were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, and successively treated with 0.2 M HCl and 10 µg/ml proteinase K. Sections were then subjected to the acetylation in 0.1 M triethanolamine, 0.25% acetic anhydride. After pre-hybridization, sections were covered with digoxigenin-labeled cRNA probes at 65 °C for 16 h. Sections were then washed, and treated with 4 µg/ml RNase A. Sections were then incubated with anti-digoxigenin-AP Fab fragments at 4 °C for 16 h. After being washed, sections were treated with nitro blue tetrazolium chloride/5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate for different periods.
Determination of Intracellular Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)—The estimation of intracellular ROS was done using DCFDA as a probe as described previously (18). Chondrocytes were cultured for 5 days, followed by the addition of 1 mM Glu 12 h before the end of culturing. Moreover, metatarsals cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu for 5 days were also used as samples. Samples were rinsed with PBS twice and then incubated in respective serum-free media containing 10 µM DCFDA at 37 °C for 30 min in a 5% CO2 incubator. In principle, DCFDA diffuses readily into cells, followed by the hydrolysis of ester groups by intracellular esterases and subsequent release of the dichloro derivative. This derivative is then oxidized to the fluorescent parent dye by intracellular ROS. Cells or metatarsals were then washed with PBS twice, followed by the determination of intracellular ROS under a confocal laser-scanning microscope (LSM 510; Carl Zeiss) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 525 nm, respectively.
RT-PCR Analysis—cDNA was synthesized with the oligo(dT) primer and reverse transcriptase from extracted total RNA. PCR amplification was performed using specific primers (Table 1), and PCR products were subcloned into a TA cloning vector for the determination of DNA sequences by ABI Prism 310 Genetic Analyzer (PerkinElmer Life Sciences) using a cycle sequencing kit. Semi-quantitative PCR analyses were performed below 30 cycles, where a linear response was achieved, using primers for the housekeeping gene glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
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Primary Culture of Rat Costal Chondrocytes—Cartilages were isolated from adult female Wistar rat ribs, followed by the incubation at 37 °C for 10 min in calcium- and magnesium-free PBS containing 0.1% EDTA and subsequent digestion with collagenase in DMEM at 37 °C for 2.5 h. Cells were collected in DMEM containing 10% fetal bovine serum and antibiotics, and then centrifuged at 500 x g for 5 min. The pellets were suspended in DMEM containing 10% fetal bovine serum. Cells were plated at a density of 4 x 104 cells/cm2, followed by culturing at 37 °C under 5% CO2 for additional 6 days. Culture medium was exchanged to DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 50 µg/ml ascorbic acid for subsequent cultivation for different periods of up to 28 days. Medium was changed every 2 to 3 days.
Alcian Blue Staining—Chondrocytes were placed in 24-well plates and cultured for different periods of time up to 21 days. Cells were rinsed with PBS twice and then stained for 30 min with 1% Alcian blue 8GS dissolved in 3% acetic acid. Cells were washed with 3% acetic acid for 30 s three times, and then stained cells were dissolved in 0.1% SDS for subsequent quantification of the absorbance at 650 nm.
Determination of ALP Activity—Chondrocytes were placed at a density of 4 x 104 cells/cm2 in 24-well plates and cultured for different periods of up to 28 days. Cells were washed twice with cold PBS, and then sonicated in 0.1 M Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.5) containing 0.1% Triton X-100. Assay buffer composed of 0.05 M 2-amino-2-methylpropanol, 2 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM p-nitrophenylphosphoric acid was added at a volume of 200 µl into 10-µl cell suspensions, followed by the reaction for 30 min at 37 °C and subsequent immediate determination of the absorbance of p-nitrophenol at 405 nm.
Cell Viability—Cell survival analysis was performed by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay to access the mitochondrial activity. Cultured chondrocytes were washed once with PBS and incubated with 0.5 mg/ml MTT in PBS for 1 h at 37 °C, followed by the addition of 0.04 M HCl in isopropyl alcohol to the well and subsequent shaking of the mixture for 10 min to dissolve the formazan. The dissolved suspension was subjected to an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reader and the absorbance at a wave-length of 550 nm was measured.
Hoechst Staining—Chondrocytes were placed in 24-well plates and cultured for a period of up to 3 days, followed by the addition of Glu 48 h before the end of culturing. Cells were rinsed with PBS twice and then stained for 15 min with 10 µg/ml Hoechst 33342 dissolved in DMEM. Cells were cultured with DMEM, and then observed with an Olympus IMT-2-21 dissecting microscope.
Determination of Intracellular Total GSH—Cells were rinsed with PBS twice, and then collected in 500 µl of PBS. One hundred µl of cell suspension was next treated with 5 µl of 10% 5-sulfosalicylic acid and homogenized at 4 °C, followed by centrifugation at 20,000 x g for 10 min. The supernatant fractions were analyzed with a total glutathione quantification kit according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Data Analysis—Results are all expressed as the mean ± S.E. and the statistical significance was determined by the two-tailed and unpaired Student's t test or the one-way analysis of variance with Bonferroni/Dunnett post hoc test.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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To further investigate the effect of Glu on chondral mineralization, mouse metatarsals were cultured in either the presence or absence of Glu at a concentration of 500 µM or 1 mM for different periods up to 7 days, followed by measurement of the mineralization ratio. Sustained exposure to Glu at 0.5 to 1 mM for 3 to 7 days from the initiation of cultivation resulted in significant inhibition of the mineralization in cultured metatarsals, whereas the mineralization ratio was not significantly changed following the incubation with Glu at 0.5 to 1 mM for 2 days (Fig. 2a). Glutamate was added at 0.5 or 1 mM on different days from 0 to 3 days to metatarsals, followed by incubation for up to 5 days and subsequent measurement of the mineralization ratio. The mineralization ratio was significantly decreased following sustained exposure to 0.5 mM Glu from 0 to 5 days and 1 to 5 days (Fig. 2b), whereas Glu did not significantly affect the mineralization ratio at 0.5 mM when exposed after 2 days until the day of alizarin red staining. The mineralization ratio was significantly decreased when metatarsals were treated with Glu at 1 mM from 0 to 5 days and 1 to 5 days in addition to 2 to 5 days. However, no significant alteration was seen with the mineralization ratio in metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu at 0.5 to 1 mM from 3 to 5 days.
An attempt was next made to evaluate the possible involvement of perichondrium and/or bone collar in the decreased mineralization by Glu. Metatarsals were isolated from mouse embryos at 15.5 days post-gestation, followed by digestion with 0.3% collagenase at 37 °C for 30 min to remove perichondrium and bone collar as described previously (19) and subsequent cultivation in the presence of Glu at 0.5 and 1 mM for 5 days. Because the collagenase digestion induced obviously abnormal shapes in metatarsals, the mineralization ratio was calculated by the measurement of areas of the total rudiment and the middle mineralized part in place of the length. As seen in control unstripped metatarsals, the mineralization ratio was significantly inhibited by Glu at a concentration of over 0.5 mM even in cultured metatarsals treated with collagenase (Fig. 2c, lower panel), whereas no significant alteration was found in the total relative area in metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu irrespective of the collagenase digestion (Fig. 2c, upper panel).
Histological Analysis in Cultured Mouse Metatarsals—To further investigate the effect of Glu on chondral mineralization, several histological analyses were conducted on sections prepared from metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu. Mouse metatarsals were cultured in the presence of Glu at 1 mM for 5 days, followed by the dissection of frozen sections at 5 µm for the histological analysis by staining with hematoxylin and eosin and Alcian blue, in addition to ALP and TUNEL. Sustained exposure to Glu apparently decreased the number of chondrocytes embedded within a calcified matrix (calcified chondrocytes), with a concomitant induction of abnormal cell shapes in both late proliferating and hypertrophic zones when determined by hematoxylin and eosin (Fig. 3a, left panels) and Alcian blue (Fig. 3a, middle left panels) staining. The ALP staining pattern was markedly altered in metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu for 5 days (Fig. 3a, middle right panels), whereas apoptotic cells positive to TUNEL staining were clearly detected within late proliferating and prehypertrophic chondrocytic layers in cultured metatarsals exposed to 1 mM Glu for 5 days (Fig. 3a, right panels).
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To further investigate the Glu-induced apoptosis, metatarsals were cultured in the presence of Glu at a concentration range of 10 µM to 1 mM for 5 days, followed by TUNEL staining. Sustained exposure to Glu at a concentration of over 500 µM apparently resulted in an appearance of TUNEL-positive cells at late proliferating to prehypertrophic chondrocytic cell layers in cultured metatarsals (Fig. 3c). Metatarsals were then cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu for different periods of up to 5 days, followed by TUNEL staining. Obvious numbers of TUNEL-positive cells were found in metatarsals cultured for 5 days, but not in those for 1 to 4 days, in the presence of 1 mM Glu (Fig. 3d).
To next examine whether or not intracellular ROS is indeed generated in metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu, metatarsals were cultured for 5 days in either the presence or absence of 1 mM Glu, followed by incubation with DCFDA for the determination of intracellular ROS levels on fluorescence image. Under these experimental conditions, highly fluorescent cells were observed at proliferating to prehypertrophic chondrocytes in metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu, but not in those cultured in the absence of Glu (Fig. 3e). These data suggest that Glu may induce apoptotic cell death and facilitation of the ROS generation, in addition to inhibiting the mineralization, in chondrocytes.
Effect of Group III mGluR Antagonist on Decreased Mineralization and Apoptosis by Glu—We have previously demonstrated that the group III mGluR agonist L-AP4 drastically inhibited chondral mineralization in a manner sensitive to an antagonist, without inducing apoptotic cell death in cultured mouse embryonic metatarsals isolated before vascularization (6). We therefore investigated the possible involvement of the group III mGluR subtype in Glu-induced chondral apoptosis. Metatarsals were treated with 1 mM Glu in either the presence or absence of the group III mGluR antagonist CPPG at 10 µM for 5 consecutive days, followed by alizarin red staining to measure the mineralization ratio in addition to TUNEL staining. The addition of CPPG partially but significantly prevented the reduction of the mineralization ratio (Fig. 4a, lower panel) in cultured metatarsals exposed to 1 mM Glu without markedly affecting the total length (Fig. 4a, upper panel) of the cartilage rudiments. Even in the presence of CPPG at 10 µM, however, Glu was still effective at 1 mM in significantly inhibiting the mineralization of cultured metatarsal rudiments. By contrast, CPPG was ineffective in affecting the number and distribution profile of TUNEL-positive cells in metatarsals cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu (Fig. 4b, upper panels). Quantitative analysis revealed that CPPG did not significantly affect the number of TUNEL-positive cells in cultured metatarsals irrespective of the presence of 1 mM Glu (Fig. 4b, lower panel). Therefore, it is unlikely that the group III mGluR subtype is at least partially involved in apoptotic cell death in metatarsals cultured in the presence of Glu at a high concentration.
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Possible Expression of Cystine/Glu Antiporter in Chondrocytes and Effects of GSH Depletion on Chondral Mineralization— To analyze the possible expression of mRNA for the cystine/Glu antiporter, mRNA was extracted from mouse metatarsals and rat costal chondrocytes for subsequent RT-PCR using specific primers for the antiporter subunits xCT and 4F2hc. Rat and mouse whole brains exhibited marked expression of mRNA for both xCT and 4F2hc subunits, whereas mRNA was invariably expressed for both xCT and 4F2hc subunits in metatarsals cultured for 1 and 5 days as well as in chondrocytes cultured for 4 and 21 days (Fig. 6a). Sequencing analysis on amplified PCR products clearly confirmed the identity of mRNA for the corresponding xCT and 4F2hc subunits (data not shown). Metatarsals cultured for 5 days were dissected for frozen sections to evaluate distribution profiles of the xCT subunit in particular chondral cell types. In these sections, expression of the xCT subunit was invariably and widely detected from proliferating to hypertrophic chondrocytes (Fig. 6b). In sections not treated with the primary antibody, no marked immunoreactivity was detected in any chondral cells seen in cultured metatarsals (data not shown).
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Effects of Glu on Chondrocyte Differentiation—Cartilage were isolated from adult female Wistar rat ribs, followed by the digestion with collagenase and collection of cells toward subsequent plating for culture. Expression of mRNA was seen for several chondral marker genes including type II collagen, sox9, runt-related gene 2 (runx2), and aggrecan, but not for the adipocyte marker gene peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-
, in costal chondrocytes cultured for 4 to 28 days (Fig. 7a). Expression of mRNA was markedly decreased for type II collagen, sox9, and runx2 in metatarsals cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR revealed that expression of mRNA was drastically increased for runx2 during culturing from 7 to 14 days with a gradual increase thereafter up to 28 days, whereas a transient increase was seen in mRNA expression for both type II collagen and sox-9 at 14 days in rat costal chondrocytes cultured for a period up to 28 days (Fig. 7b). Although expression of mRNA for aggrecan was not significantly changed in the presence of 1 mM Glu at any stages from 4 to 28 days, significant suppression was found in mRNA expression of sox9, runx2, and type II collagen in costal chondrocytes cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu. Quantitative analysis on 4 different experiments clearly showed significant inhibition of the expression of mRNA for sox9 at 14 days, for runx2 from 14 to 28 days, and type II collagen from 7 to 21 days, respectively, in chondrocytes cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu.
In proportion to increasing culture periods up to 18 days, a linear increase was found in Alcian blue staining used for the detection of acidic mucopolysaccharide in cultured rat costal chondrocytes when quantified after the extraction of the dye on spectrometry, whereas the staining intensity was significantly decreased in chondrocytes cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu from 7 to 21 days (Fig. 7c). A marked increase was also seen in the activity of ALP in chondrocytes cultured for a period of 7 to 28 days with a plateau on 18 days, whereas the activity was significantly decreased in chondrocytes cultured in the presence of 1 mM Glu from 11 to 28 days (Fig. 7d). Cultured metatarsals were next exposed to 1 mM Glu at different days of culture from 0 to 21 days, followed by the determination of ALP activity at 28 days. The ALP activity was significantly decreased following sustained exposure to 1 mM Glu from 3 to 28 days and 6 to 28 days in addition to 0 to 28 days, whereas Glu did not significantly affect the ALP activity when exposed after 9 days until the day of the determination of ALP activity (Fig. 7e).
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Effects of Glu on Bax/Bcl-2, ROS, Nitric Oxide, and GSH in Chondrocytes—An attempt was first made to determine whether Bax/Bcl-2 family members are involved in the Glu-induced chondral apoptotic cell death. Chondrocytes were cultured with 50 µg/ml ascorbic acid for 4 days, followed by a further cultivation in either the presence or absence of 1 mM Glu for 4 h and subsequent extraction of mRNA for RT-PCR. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR revealed that expression of mRNA was significantly increased for both bax and p53 after brief exposure to 1 mM Glu for 4 h, whereas slight but significant suppression was seen in mRNA expression for bcl-2 in rat costal chondrocytes exposed to 1 mM Glu for 4 h (Fig. 9a). For evaluation of the effect of Glu on ROS production, rat costal chondrocytes were cultured with 50 µg/ml ascorbic acid for 5 days, followed by the additional cultivation in either the presence or absence of 1 mM Glu for 12 h and subsequent determination of intracellular ROS levels. Under these experimental conditions, brief exposure to Glu increased intracellular ROS levels in cultured chondrocytes (Fig. 9b). To further examine a possible mechanism underlying the increased ROS generation by Glu, rat costal chondrocytes were cultured in either the presence or absence of 1 mM Glu for different days up to 21 days, followed by determination of intracellular GSH contents. The total GSH level was rather stable in chondrocytes cultured for 5 to 14 days with a marked decrease during a period from 14 to 21 days, whereas a significant decrease was seen in the endogenous level of GSH to the level found in cells cultured for 21 days when cells were cultured for 5 to 14 days in the presence of 1 mM Glu (Fig. 9c). No significant change was found in GSH levels in chondrocytes cultured in the presence of Glu for 21 days.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The cystine/Glu antiporter is a crucial determinant of the regulation of intracellular GSH concentrations in a variety of eukaryotic cells (14, 15). Under the condition of high extracellular Glu levels, extracellular Glu could be taken up in exchange for intracellular cystine through the cystine/Glu antiporter, followed by GSH depletion attributable to the decreased cystine level in the cytoplasm and subsequent cell death due to GSH depletion (14, 15). We have previously demonstrated that the group III mGluR agonist L-AP4 drastically inhibits chondral mineralization in a manner sensitive to an antagonist, without inducing apoptotic cell death, in cultured mouse embryonic metatarsals isolated before vascularization (6). Thus, it is conceivable that extracellular Glu at a high concentration could induce apoptosis through a mechanism associated with the depletion of intracellular GSH as a result of retrograde operation of the cystine/Glu antiporter, but not related to the possible excitotoxicity mediated by particular GluRs, in chondrocytes. Indeed, in the present study, the group III mGluR antagonist CPPG failed to completely abolish inhibition of mineralization by Glu in cultured metatarsals without significantly affecting the Glu-induced apoptosis. Our findings that both decreased mineralization and apoptosis by Glu were significantly prevented by the addition of a cystine/Glu antiporter inhibitor and a substrate, in addition to antioxidants such as GSH, in cultured metatarsals support this proposal. Therefore, Glu could negatively regulate the developmental differentiation toward mineralization through a mechanism associated with the apoptosis of late proliferating to prehypertrophic cells after the depletion of intracellular GSH due to the massive transmembrane efflux of intracellular cystine by the retrograde operation of the cystine/Glu antiporter in chondrocytes.
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Previous studies have demonstrated a drastic increase in endogenous Glu levels (6.25 versus 326 µM) in the synovial fluid obtained from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (30), whereas the elevation of Glu in synovial fluid is shown to be relevant to the increased edema and the sensitization to thermal hyperalgesia in experimental arthritis models (31, 32). We have also shown a marked increase in the activity of [3H]Glu accumulation sensitive to different EAAT inhibitors, but not to cystine or homocysteic acid, in synovial fibroblasts of rats with collagen-induced arthritis (33). In particular pathological situations such as OA and RA, therefore, extracellular Glu would reach the levels required for the retrograde operation of the cystine/Glu antiporter around chondrocytes in articular cartilage. It should be also noted that serum Glu levels vary from a low micromolar range in humans (34) to a high micromolar range in rats (35) under physiological conditions. The cytotoxicity shown in the present investigation argues in favor of an idea that extracellular Glu would play a pivotal role in mechanisms underlying articular chondral abnormalities observed in humans with degenerative joint diseases, such as OA and RA, at high concentrations. A possible speculation is that apoptotic cell death of proliferating to prehypertrophic chondrocytes would lead to the prevention of subsequent cellular differentiation to both hypertrophic and calcified chondrocytes responsible for the maintenance of the normal architectural structure and functionality of the articular cartilage in a particular situation.
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We have also shown that activation of the group III mGluR subtype by L-AP4 significantly inhibits cAMP formation by both forskolin and parathyroid hormone (PTH) in a CPPG-sensitive manner in cultured mouse metatarsals (6). As PTH is known to inhibit chondral mineralization through a mechanism related to the increased formation of cAMP after activation of PTH receptors expressed at cell surfaces (20), however, the reason why decreased mineralization is similarly brought about by the two transmembrane signaling systems oppositely directed to intracellular cAMP levels in metatarsals is not clarified so far. Our preliminary data that PTH induced a marked bending as well as decreased mineralization of chondral rudiments could at least in part give us a clue for the explanation of the paradoxical data between the inhibition of mineralization by PTH and Glu in cultured metatarsals.
It thus appears that Glu inhibits chondral mineralization through a mechanism related to the reversal drive of the cystine/Glu antiporter for apoptosis in addition to activation of the group III mGluR subtype. The activity as well as the direction of the cystine/Glu antiporter expressed at cell surfaces may be a crucial determinant of the cellular survival and developmental differentiation through modulation of the endogenous level of GSH that plays a pivotal role as a predominant antioxidant in chondrocytes. Therefore, the cystine/Glu antiporter would be a novel target for the discovery and development of strategies useful for the therapy and treatment of a variety of degenerative joint diseases such as OA and RA.
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 Both authors contributed equally to the present work.
2 To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel./Fax: 81-0-76-234-4471; E-mail: yyoneda{at}p.kanazawa-u.ac.jp.
3 The abbreviations used are: GluR, Glu receptor; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; AMPA, DL--amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxasole-4-propionate; CPPG, (R,S)--cyclopropyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine; DCFDA, dihydrodichlorofluorescein diacetate; EAAT, excitatory amino acid transporter; L-AP4, L-(1)-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate; mGluR, metabotropic GluR; OA, osteoarthritis; PTH, parathyroid hormone; RA, rheumatoid arthritis; ROS, reactive oxygen species; runx2, runt-related gene 2; TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; MEM, minimal essential medium; RT, reverse transcriptase; OA, osteoarthritis; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide.
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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